*Result*: Narrative Review of Sex Differences in Muscle Strength, Endurance, Activation, Size, Fiber Type, and Strength Training Participation Rates, Preferences, Motivations, Injuries, and Neuromuscular Adaptations.
Abe T, Bell ZW, Wong V, et al. Skeletal muscle size distribution in large-sized male and female athletes. Am J Hum Biol 33: e23473, 2021.
Abe T, Brechue WF, Fujita S, Brown JB. Gender differences in FFM accumulation and architectural characteristics of muscle. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30: 1066–1070, 1998.
Abe T, Counts BR, Barnett BE, et al. Associations between handgrip strength and ultrasound-measured muscle thickness of the hand and forearm in young men and women. Ultrasound Med Biol 41: 2125–2130, 2015.
Abe T, DeHoyos DV, Pollock ML, Garzarella L. Time course for strength and muscle thickness changes following upper and lower body resistance training in men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 81: 174–180, 2000.
Abe T, Kearns CF, Fukunaga T. Sex differences in whole body skeletal muscle mass measured by magnetic resonance imaging and its distribution in young Japanese adults. Br J Sports Med 37: 436–440, 2003.
Abe T, Loenneke JP, Thiebaud RS, Fukunaga T. Age-related site-specific muscle wasting of upper and lower extremities and trunk in Japanese men and women. Age 36: 813–821, 2014.
Abe T, Loenneke JP, Young KC, et al. Validity of ultrasound prediction equations for total and regional muscularity in middle-aged and older men and women. Ultrasound Med Biol 41: 557–564, 2015.
Abe T, Thiebaud RS, Loenneke JP, Loftin M, Fukunaga T. Prevalence of site-specific thigh sarcopenia in Japanese men and women. Age 36: 417–426, 2014.
Abe T, Thiebaud RS, Loenneke JP, Ogawa M, Mitsukawa N. Association between forearm muscle thickness and age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass, handgrip and knee extension strength and walking performance in old men and women: A pilot study. Ultrasound Med Biol 40: 2069–2075, 2014.
Abrantes AM, Battle CL, Strong DR, et al. Exercise preferences of patients in substance abuse treatment. Ment Health Phys Act 4: 79–87, 2011.
Ades PA, Ballor DL, Ashikaga T, Utton JL, Nair KS. Weight training improves walking endurance in healthy elderly persons. Ann Intern Med 124: 568–572, 1996.
Ahlgren A, Johnson DW. Sex differences in cooperative and competitive attitudes from the 2nd through the 12th grades. Dev Psychol 15: 45–49, 1979.
Ahtiainen JP, Walker S, Peltonen H, et al. Heterogeneity in resistance training-induced muscle strength and mass responses in men and women of different ages. Age 38: 10, 2016.
Akagi R, Takai Y, Ohta M, et al. Muscle volume compared to cross-sectional area is more appropriate for evaluating muscle strength in young and elderly individuals. Age Ageing 38: 564–569, 2009.
Albert WJ, Wrigley AT, McLean RB, Sleivert GG. Sex differences in the rate of fatigue development and recovery. Dyn Med 5: 2, 2006.
Alway SE, Grumbt WH, Gonyea WJ, Stray-Gundersen J. Contrasts in muscle and myofibers of elite male and female bodybuilders. J Appl Physiol 67: 24–31, 1989.
American College of Sports Medicine. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 41: 687–708, 2009.
American College of Sports Medicine, Chodzko-Zajko WJ, Proctor DN, et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and physical activity for older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 41: 1510–1530, 2009.
Ansdell P, Thomas K, Howatson G, Hunter S, Goodall S. Contraction intensity and sex differences in knee-extensor fatigability. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 37: 68–74, 2017.
Archer J. The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 94: 1381–1415, 2019.
Arnold JD, Rauschenberger JM, Soubel WG, Guion RM. Validation and utility of a strength test for selecting steelworkers. J Appl Psychol 67: 588–604, 1982.
Arnold P, Bautmans I. The influence of strength training on muscle activation in elderly persons: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Exp Gerontol 58: 58–68, 2014.
Arts IM, Pillen S, Schelhaas HJ, Overeem S, Zwarts MJ. Normal values for quantitative muscle ultrasonography in adults. Muscle Nerve 41: 32–41, 2010.
Ashford B, Biddle S, Goudas M. Participation in community sports centres: Motives and predictors of enjoyment. J Sports Sci 11: 249–256, 1993.
Bagley L, Al-Shanti N, Bradburn S, et al. Sex comparison of knee extensor size, strength, and fatigue adaptation to sprint interval training. J Strength Cond Res 35: 64–71, 2021.
Ball R, Weidman D. Analysis of USA Powerlifting Federation data from January 1, 2012-June 11, 2016. J Strength Cond Res 32: 1843–1851, 2018.
Balogun JA, Adenlola SA, Akinloye AA. Grip strength normative data for the harpenden dynamometer. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 14: 155–160, 1991.
Bartolomei S, Grillone G, Di Michele R, Cortesi M. A comparison between male and female athletes in relative strength and power performances. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 6: 17, 2021.
Behan FP, Maden-Wilkinson TM, Pain MTG, Folland JP. Sex differences in muscle morphology of the knee flexors and knee extensors. PLoS One 13: e0190903, 2018.
Behm DG, Sale DG. Voluntary and evoked muscle contractile characteristics in active men and women. Can J Appl Physiol 19: 253–265, 1994.
Belanger AY, McComas AJ. Extent of motor unit activation during effort. J Appl Physiol 51: 1131–1135, 1981.
Belanger AY, McComas AJ, Elder GB. Physiological properties of two antagonist human muscle groups. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 51: 381–393, 1983.
Bell G, Syrotuik D, Socha T, MacLean I, Quinnery HA. Effect of strength training and concurrent strength and endurance training on strength, testosterone, and cortisol. J Strength Cond Res 11: 57–64, 1997.
Bellew JW, Yates JW, Gater DR. The initial effects of low-volume strength training on balance in untrained older men and women. J Strength Cond Res 17: 121–128, 2003.
Bennie JA, De Cocker K, Smith JJ, Wiesner GH. The epidemiology of muscle-strengthening exercise in Europe: A 28-country comparison including 280,605 adults. PLoS One 15: e0242220, 2020.
Bennie JA, De Cocker K, Tittlbach S. The epidemiology of muscle-strengthening and aerobic physical activity guideline adherence among 24,016 German adults. Scand J Med Sci Sports 31: 1096–1104, 2021.
Bennie JA, Lee DC, Khan A, et al. Muscle-strengthening exercise among 397,423 U.S. adults: Prevalence, correlates, and associations with health conditions. Am J Prev Med 55: 864–874, 2018.
Bennie JA, Pedisic Z, Suni JH, et al. Self-reported health-enhancing physical activity recommendation adherence among 64,380 Finnish adults. Scand J Med Sci Sports 27: 1842–1853, 2017.
Bennie JA, Pedisic Z, van Uffelen JG, et al. Pumping iron in Australia: Prevalence, trends and sociodemographic correlates of muscle strengthening activity participation from a national sample of 195,926 adults. PLoS One 11: e0153225, 2016.
Bennie JA, Pedisic Z, van Uffelen JG, et al. The descriptive epidemiology of total physical activity, muscle-strengthening exercises and sedentary behaviour among Australian adults—Results from the National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. BMC Public Health 16, 2016.
Bennie JA, Shakespear-Druery J, De Cocker K. Muscle-strengthening exercise epidemiology: A new frontier in chronic disease prevention. Sports Med Open 6: 40, 2020.
Beutel AM, Marini MM. Gender and values. Am Sociol Rev 60: 436–448, 1995.
Bianchi A. Transgender women in sport. J Philos Sport 44: 229–242, 2017.
Bianco A, Filingeri D, Paoli A, Palma A. One repetition maximum bench press performance: A new approach for its evaluation in inexperienced males and females: A pilot study. J Bodyw Mov Ther 19: 362–369, 2015.
Biddle SJH, Bailey CIA. Motives for participation and attitudes toward physical activity of adult participants in fitness programs. Percept Mot Skills 61: 831–834, 1985.
Billaut F, Bishop D. Muscle fatigue in males and females during multiple-sprint exercise. Sports Med 39: 257–278, 2009.
Bilodeau M, Erb MD, Nichols JM, Joiner KL, Weeks JB. Fatigue of elbow flexor muscles in younger and older adults. Muscle Nerve 24: 98–106, 2001.
Bishop P, Cureton K, Collins M. Sex difference in muscular strength in equally-trained men and women. Ergonomics 30: 675–687, 1987.
Bishop P, Cureton K, Conerly M, Collins M. Sex difference in muscle cross-sectional area of athletes and non-athletes. J Sports Sci 7: 31–39, 1989.
Blackburn JT, Bell DR, Norcross MF, Hudson JD, Kimsey MH. Sex comparison of hamstring structural and material properties. Clin Biomech 24: 65–70, 2009.
Boerner PR, Polasek KM, True L, Lind E, Hendrick JL. Is what you see what you get? Perceptions of personal trainers' competence, knowledge, and preferred sex of personal trainer relative to physique. J Strength Cond Res 35: 1949–1955, 2021.
Bonde Petersen F. Muscle training by static, concentric and eccentric contractions. Acta Physiol Scand 48: 406–416, 1960.
Borges O, Essén-Gustavsson B. Enzyme activities in type I and II muscle fibres of human skeletal muscle in relation to age and torque development. Acta Physiol Scand 136: 29–36, 1989.
Bornstein RA. Normative data on selected neuropsychological measures from a nonclinical sample. J Clin Psychol 41: 651–659, 1985.
Bouchant A, Martin V, Maffiuletti NA, Ratel S. Can muscle size fully account for strength differences between children and adults? J Appl Physiol 110: 1748–1749, 2011.
Braathen ET, Svebak S. Motivational differences among talented teenage athletes: The signifance of gender, type of sport and level of excellence. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2: 153–159, 1992.
Brown L, Campbell-Jack D, Gray L, et al. In: The Scottish Health Survey, 2015 Edition: A National Statistics Publication for Scotland. Campbell-Jack D., Hinchliffe S, Rutherford L, eds. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Scottish Government. p. 186–187; 2015.
Busch AM, Ciccolo JT, Puspitasari AJ, et al. Preference for exercise as a treatment for depression. Ment Health Phys Act 10: 68–72, 2016.
Buss DM. The evolution of human intrasexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction. J Pers Soc Psychol 54: 616–628, 1988.
Butterfield SA, Lehnhard RA, Loovis EM, Coladarci T, Saucier D. Grip strength performances by 5- to 19-year-olds. Percept Mot Skills 109: 362–370, 2009.
Byrnes JP, Miller DC, Schafer WD. Gender differenes in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 125: 367–383, 1999.
Callahan DM, Bedrin NG, Subramanian M, et al. Age-related structural alterations in human skeletal muscle fibers and mitochondria are sex specific: Relationship to single-fiber function. J Appl Physiol 116: 1582–1592, 2014.
Callahan DM, Foulis SA, Kent-Braun JA. Age-related fatigue resistance in the knee extensor muscles is specific to contraction mode. Muscle Nerve 39: 692–702, 2009.
Cameron FE. Leisure-time activities of business and professional men in Iowa. Res Q 6: 96–98, 1935.
Carman A. Pain and strength measurements of 1,507 school children in Saginaw, Michigan. Am J Psychol 10: 392–398, 1899.
Carter SL, Rennie CD, Hamilton SJ, Tarnopolsky. Changes in skeletal muscle in males and females following endurance training. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 79: 386–392, 2001.
Carvalho de Abreu DC, Freire Junior RC, Mello Porto J, et al. Functional performance of older adults: A comparison between men and women. Women Health 61: 372–380, 2021.
Cashdan E. Are men more competitive than women? Br J Soc Psychol 37: 213–229, 1998.
Catley MJ, Tomkinson GR. Normative health-related fitness values for children: Analysis of 85347 test results on 9-17-year-old Australians since 1985. Br J Sports Med 47: 98–108, 2013.
Cavuoto LA, Pajoutan M, Mehta RK. Reliability analyses and values of isometric shoulder flexion and trunk extension strengths stratified by body mass Index. PLoS One 14: e0219090, 2019.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Patterns and trends in physical activity. In: Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1996. p. 185.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in strength training – United States, 1998-2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 55: 769–772, 2006.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Adult participation in aerobic and muscle-strengthening physical activities—United States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 62: 326–330, 2013.
Chan JP, Thalamuthu A, Oldmeadow C, et al. Genetics of hand grip strength in mid to late life. Age 37: 9745, 2015.
Chapman BP, Duberstein PR, Sörensen S, Lyness JM. Gender differences in five factor model personality traits in an elderly cohort: Extension of robust and surprising findings to an older generation. Pers Individ Dif 43: 1594–1603, 2007.
Charlier R, Mertens E, Lefevre J, Thomis M. Muscle mass and muscle function over the adult life span: A cross-sectional study in Flemish adults. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 61: 161–167, 2015.
Chevan J. Demographic determinants of participation in strength training activities among U.S. adults. J Strength Cond Res 22: 553–558, 2008.
Chow RS, Medri MK, Martin DC, et al. Sonographic studies of human soleus and gastrocnemius muscle architecture: Gender variability. Eur J Appl Physiol 82: 236–244, 2000.
Cioni R, Giannini F, Paradiso C, et al. Sex differences in surface EMG interference pattern power spectrum. J Appl Physiol 77: 2163–2168, 1994.
Clark BC, Collier SR, Manini TM, Ploutz-Snyder LL. Sex differences in muscle fatigability and activation patterns of the human quadriceps femoris. Eur J Appl Physiol 94: 196–206, 2005.
Clark BC, Manini TM, Thé DJ, Doldo NA, Ploutz-Snyder LL. Gender differences in skeletal muscle fatigability are related to contraction type and EMG spectral compression. J Appl Physiol 94: 2263–2272, 2003.
Clarkson PM, Hubal MJ. Are women less susceptible to exercise-induced muscle damage? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 4: 527–531, 2001.
Clarkson PM, Hubal MJ. Exercise-induced muscle damage in humans. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 81: S52–S69, 2002.
Clement FJ. Longitudinal and cross-sectional assessments of age changes in physical strength as related to sex, social class, and mental ability. J Gerontol 29: 423–429, 1974.
Coggan AR, Spina RJ, King DS, et al. Histochemical and enzymatic comparison of the gastrocnemius muscle of young and elderly men and women. J Gerontol 47: B71–B76, 1992.
Coggan AR, Spina RJ, King DS, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptations to endurance training in 60- to 70-yr-old men and women. J Appl Physiol 72: 1780–1786, 1992.
Cohen J, Collins R, Darkes J, Gwartney D. A league of their own: Demographics, motivations and patterns of use of 1,955 male adult non-medical anabolic steroid users in the United States. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 4: 12, 2007.
Cohen-Mansfield J, Marx MS, Biddison JR, Guralnik JM. Socio-environmental exercise preferences among older adults. Prev Med 38: 804–811, 2004.
Coin A, Sarti S, Ruggiero E, et al. Prevalence of sarcopenia based on different diagnostic criteria using DEXA and appendicular skeletal muscle mass reference values in an Italian population aged 20 to 80. J Am Med Dir Assoc 14: 507–512, 2013.
Colberg SR, Albright AL, Blissmer BJ, et al. Exercise and type 2 diabetes: American College of Sports Medicine and the American Diabetes Association: Joint position statement. Exercise and type 2 diabetes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42: 2282–2303, 2010.
Colliander EB, Tesch PA. Bilateral eccentric and concentric torque of quadriceps and hamstring muscles in females and males. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 59: 227–232, 1989.
Collins JD, O'Sullivan L. Age and sex related differences in shoulder abduction fatigue. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 19: 280, 2018.
Comfort P, McMahon JJ. Reliability of maximal back squat and power clean performances in inexperienced athletes. J Strength Cond Res 29: 3089–3096, 2015.
Cooke DM, Haischer MH, Carzoli JP, et al. Body mass and femur length are inversely related to repetitions performed in the back squat in well-trained lifters. J Strength Cond Res 33: 890–895, 2019.
Costa PT, Terracciano A, McCrae RR. Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. J Pers Soc Psychol 81: 322–331, 2001.
Costill DL, Daniels J, Evans W, et al. Skeletal muscle enzymes and fiber composition in male and female track athletes. J Appl Physiol 40: 149–154, 1976.
Curtin KD, Lee EY, Yun L, Spence JC. Context matters: Examining perceived health and fitness outcomes of physical activity participation among South Korean adults and youth. Int J Behav Med 25: 548–557, 2018.
Da Boit M, Sibson R, Meakin JR, et al. Sex differences in the response to resistance exercise training in older people. Physiol Rep 4: e12834, 2016.
Danneskiold-Samsøe B, Bartels EM, Bülow PM, et al. Isokinetic and isometric muscle strength in a healthy population with special reference to age and gender. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 197(suppl 673): 1–68, 2009.
Das B, Wang Y. Isometric pull-push strengths in workspace: 1. Strength profiles. Int J Occup Saf Ergon 10: 43–58, 2004.
Davis C, Brewer H, Weinstein M. A study of appearance anxiety in young men. Soc Behav Pers 21: 63–74, 1993.
Davis C, Fox J, Brewer H, Ratusny D. Motivations to exercise as a function of personality characteristics, age, and gender. Pers Individ Dif 19: 165–174, 1995.
De Andrade Bastos A, Salguero A, Gonzalez-Boto R, Marquez S. Motives for participation in physical activity by Brazilian adults. Percept Mot Skills 102: 358–367, 2996.
de Lima DF, Lima LA, do Carmo Luiz O. Daily physical activity of Brazilian carriers of arterial hypertension: A transversal analysis. Colomb Med 48: 82–87, 2017.
de Oliveira Segundo H, Rebouças GM, Felipe TR, et al. Self-selected intensity by controlled hypertensive older women during a weight training session. IOSR J Sports Phys Educ 3: 9–13, 2016.
De Smet L, Vercammen A. Grip strength in children. J Pediatr Orthop B 10: 352–354, 2001.
Deaner RO, Geary DC, Puts DA, et al. A sex difference in the predisposition for physical competition: Males play sports much more than females even in the contemporary U.S. PLoS One 7: e49168, 2012.
Dearth DJ, Umbel J, Hoffman RL, et al. Men and women exhibit a similar time to task failure for a sustained, submaximal elbow extensor contraction. Eur J Appl Physiol 108: 1089–1098, 2010.
Decostre V, Canal A, Ollivier G, et al. Wrist flexion and extension torques measured by highly sensitive dynamometer in healthy subjects from 5 to 80 years. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 16: 4, 2015.
Deering RE, Senefeld JW, Pashibin T, Neumann DA, Hunter SK. Muscle function and fatigability of trunk flexors in males and females. Biol Sex Differ 8: 12, 2017.
Delmonico MJ, Kostek MC, Doldo NA, et al. Effects of moderate-velocity strength training on peak muscle power and movement velocity: Do women respond differently than men? J Appl Physiol 99: 1712–1718, 2005.
den Hoed M, Hesselink MK, Westerterp KR. Skeletal muscle fiber-type distribution and habitual physical activity in daily life. Scand J Med Sci Sports 19: 373–380, 2009.
Deschenes MR, McCoy RW, Mangis KA. Factors relating to gender specificity of unloading-induced declines in strength. Muscle Nerve 46: 210–217, 2012.
Desrosiers J, Bravo G, Hebert R, Dutil E. Normative data for grip strenth of elderly men and women. Am J Occup Ther 49: 637–644, 1995.
Ditroilo M, Forte R, Benelli P, Gambarara D, De Vito G. Effects of age and limb dominance on upper and lower limb muscle function in healthy males and females aged 40-80 years. J Sports Sci 28: 667–677, 2010.
Dixson AF, Halliwell G, East R, Wignarajah P, Anderson MJ. Masculine somatotype and hirsuteness as determinants of sexual attractiveness to women. Arch Sex Behav 32: 29–39, 2003.
Dixson BJ, Dixson AF, Bishop PJ, Parish A. Human physique and sexual attractiveness in men and women: A New Zealand-U.S. comparative study. Arch Sex Behav 39: 798–806, 2010.
Dixson BJ, Dixson AF, Li B, Anderson MJ. Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: Sexual preferences of men and women in China. Am J Hum Biol 19: 88–95, 2007.
Dixson BJ, Dixson AF, Morgan B, Anderson MJ. Human physique and sexual attractiveness: Sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon. Arch Sex Behav 36: 369–375, 2007.
Dos Santos WM, Junior ACT, Braz TV, et al. Resistance-trained individuals can underestimate the intensity of the resistance training session: An analysis among genders, training experience, and exercises. J Strength Cond Res 36: 1506–1510, 2020.
Doyle CB, Khan A, Burton NW. Recreational physical activity context and type preferences among male and female Emirati university students. Int Health 11: 507–512, 2019.
Durkee PK, Polo P, Muñoz-Reyes JA, et al. Men's bodily attractiveness: Muscles as fitness indicators. Evol Psychol 17: 1474704919852918, 2019.
East WB. A Historical Review and Analysis of Army Physical Readiness Training and Assessment. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press: 142–146, 2013.
Eaton CB, Nafziger AN, Strogatz DS, Pearson TA. Self-reported physical activity in a rural county: A New York county health census. Am J Public Health 84: 29–32, 1994.
Eckel TL, Watkins CM, Archer DC, et al. Bench press and pushup repetitions to failure with equated load. Int J Sports Sci Coach 12: 647–652, 2017.
Egli T, Bland HW, Melton BF, Czech DR. Influence of age, sex, and race on college students' exercise motivation of physical activity. J Am Coll Health 59: 399–406, 2011.
El Ansari W, Khalil K, Crone D, Stock C. Physical activity and gender differences: Correlates of compliance with recommended levels of five forms of physical activity among students at nine universities in Libya. Cent Eur J Public Health 22: 98–105, 2014.
Elkins EC, Leden UM, Wakim KG. Objective recording of the strength of normal muscles. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 32: 639–647, 1951.
Elsangedy HM, Krause MP, Krinski K, et al. Is the self-selected resistance exercise intensity by older women consistent with the American College of Sports Medicine guidelines to improve muscular fitness? J Strength Cond Res 27: 1877–1844, 2013.
Elsangedy HM, Krinski K, Machado DG, et al. Self-selected intensity, ratings of perceived exertion, and affective responses in sedentary male subjects during resistance training. J Phys Ther Sci 28: 1795–1800, 2016.
Engebretsen L, Soligard T, Steffen K, et al. Sports injuries and illnesses during the London Summer Olympic Games 2012. Br J Sports Med 47: 407–414, 2013.
Esbjörnsson M, Rundqvist HC, Mascher H, et al. Sprint exercise enhances skeletal muscle p70S6k phosphorylation and more so in women than in men. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 205: 411–422, 2012.
Esbjörnsson M, Sylvén C, Holm I, Jansson E. Fast twitch fibres may predict anaerobic performance in both females and males. Int J Sports Med 14: 257–263, 1993.
Esbjörnsson ME, Dahlström MS, Gierup JW, Jansson EC. Muscle fiber size in healthy children and adults in relation to sex and fiber types. Muscle Nerve 63: 586–592, 2021.
Esbjörnsson-Liljedahl M, Bodin K, Jansson E. Smaller muscle ATP reduction in women than in men by repeated bouts of sprint exercise. J Appl Physiol 93: 1075–1083, 2002.
Esbjörnsson-Liljedahl M, Sundberg CJ, Norman B, Jansson E. Metabolic response in type I and type II muscle fibers during a 30-s cycle sprint in men and women. J Appl Physiol 87: 1326–1332, 1999.
Essén-Gustavsson B, Borges O. Histochemical and metabolic characteristics of human skeletal muscle in relation to age. Acta Physiol Scand 126: 107–114, 1986.
Faigenbaum AD, Kraemer WJ, Blimkie CJ, et al. Youth resistance training: Updated position statement paper from the National Strength and Conditioning Association. J Strength Cond Res 23: S60–S79, 2009.
Fairchild Saidi G, Branscum P. Gender differences for theory-based determinants of muscle-strengthening physical activity in college-aged students: A moderation analysis. Transl Behav Med 10: 781–791, 2020.
Faries MD, Lutz R. Self-selected intensity and adherence in a campus recreation center with novice, female weight lifters: A preliminary investigation. J Strength Cond Res 40: 56–68, 2016.
Feeler L, St James JD, Schapmire DW. Isometric strength assessment, Part I: Static testing does not accurately predict dynamic lifting capacity. Work 37: 301–308, 2010.
Feingold A. Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 116: 429–456, 1994.
Fiebert IM, Roach KE, Armstrong T, Mandel DW, Donohue M. Dynamometric grip strength assessment of subjects sixty years and older. Phys Occup Ther Geriatr 13: 27–40, 1996.
Findlay LC, Bowker A. The link between competitive sport participation and self-concept in early adolescence: A consideration of gender and sport orientation. J Youth Adolesc 38: 29–40, 2009.
Finlayson MA, Reitan RM. Handedness in relation to measures of motor and tactile-perceptual functions in normal children. Percept Mot Skills 42: 475–481, 1976.
Firebaugh G. Gender differences in exercise and sports. Sociol Soc Res 73: 59–66, 1989.
Flanagan SD, Mills MD, Sterczala AJ, et al. The relationship between muscle action and repetition maximum on the squat and bench press in men and women. J Strength Cond Res 28: 2437–2442, 2014.
Focht BC. Perceived exertion and training load during self-selected and imposed-intensity resistance exercise in untrained women. J Strength Cond Res 21: 183–187, 2007.
Fortier MD, Katzmarzyk PT, Malina RM, Bouchard C. Seven-year stability of physical activity and musculoskeletal fitness in the Canadian population. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33: 1905–1911, 2001.
Franzoi SL, Shields SA. The body Esteem scale: Multidimensional structure and sex differences in a college population. J Pers Assess 48: 173–178, 1984.
Frederick DA, Haselton MG. Why is muscularity sexy? Tests of the fitness indicator hypothesis. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 33: 1167–1183, 2007.
Frontera WR, Suh D, Krivickas LS, Hughes VA, Goldstein R, Roubenoff R. Skeletal muscle fiber quality in older men and women. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 279: C611–C618, 2000.
Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Gu Q, Afful J, Ogden CL. Anthropometric reference data for children and adults: United States, 2015–2018. Vital Health Stat 36: 1–44, 2021.
Fujisawa CMP, Tamaki APP, Yamada EPP, Matsuoka HPM. Influence of gender on muscle fatigue during dynamic knee contractions. Phys Ther Res 20: 1–8, 2017.
Gaist D, Bathum L, Skytthe A, et al. Strength and anthropometric measures in identical and fraternal twins: No evidence of masculinization of females with male co-twins. Epidemiology 11: 340–343, 2000.
Gallagher D, Heymsfield SB. Muscle distribution: Variations with body weight, gender, and age. Appl Radiat Isot 49: 733–734, 1998.
Gallagher D, Visser M, De Meersman RE, et al. Appendicular skeletal muscle mass: Effects of age, gender, and ethnicity. J Appl Physiol 83: 229–239, 1997.
Galuska DA, Earle D, Fulton JE. The epidemiology of U.S. adults who regularly engage in resistance training. Res Q Exerc Sport 73: 330–334, 2002.
Garcés GL, Medina D, Milutinovic L, Garavote P, Guerado E. Normative database of isometric cervical strength in a healthy population. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 464–470, 2002.
Gerdle B, Karlsson S, Crenshaw AG, Fridén J. The relationships between EMG and muscle morphology throughout sustained static knee extension at two submaximal force levels. Acta Physiol Scand 160: 341–351, 1997.
Gill DL. Competitiveness among females and males in physical activity classes. Sex Roles 15: 233–247, 1986.
Gill DL. Gender differences in competitive orientation and sport participation. Int J Sport Psychol 19: 145–149, 1988.
Glass SC, Stanton DR. Self-selected resistance training intensity in novice weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 18: 324–327, 2004.
Glenmark B, Hedberg G, Jansson E. Changes in muscle fibre type from adolescence to adulthood in women and men. Acta Physiol Scand 146: 251–259, 1992.
Glenmark B, Hedberg G, Kaijser L, Jansson E. Muscle strength from adolescence to adulthood—Relationship to muscle fibre types. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 68: 9–19, 1994.
Gneezy U, Rustichini A. Gender and competition at a young age. Am Econ Rev 94: 377–381, 2004.
Gołaś A, Maszczyk A, Pietraszewski P, et al. Muscular activity patterns of female and male athletes during the flat bench press. Biol Sport 35: 175–179, 2018.
Gray PB, Frederick DA. Body image and body type preferences in St. Kitts, Caribbean: A cross-cultural comparison with U.S. samples regarding attitudes towards muscularity, body fat, and breast size. Evol Psychol 10: 631–655, 2012.
Gray SE, Finch CF. Epidemiology of hospital-treated injuries sustained by fitness participants. Res Q Exerc Sport 86: 81–87, 2015.
Griffin JW, Tooms RE, vander Zwaag R, Bertorini TE, O'Toole ML. Eccentric muscle performance of elbow and knee muscle groups in untrained men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25: 936–944, 1993.
Hackett DA, Cobley SP, Davies TB, Michael SW, Halaki M. Accuracy in estimating repetitions to failure during resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res 31: 2162–2168, 2017.
Häger-Ross C, Rösblad B. Norms for grip strength in children aged 4-16 years. Acta Paediatr 91: 617–625, 2002.
Häkkinen K. Neuromuscular fatigue and recovery in male and female athletes during heavy resistance exercise. Int J Sports Med 14: 53–59, 1993.
Häkkinen K. Neuromuscular fatigue in males and females during strenuous heavy resistance loading. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 34: 205–214, 1994.
Häkkinen K, Häkkinen A. Neuromuscular adaptations during intensive strength training in middle-aged and elderly males and females. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 35: 137–147, 1995.
Häkkinen K, Kraemer WJ, Newton RU, Alen M. Changes in electromyographic activity, muscle fibre and force production characteristics during heavy resistance/power strength training in middle-aged and older men and women. Acta Physiol Scand 171: 51–62, 2001.
Hamnegård CH, Sedler M, Polkey MI, Bake B. Quadriceps strength assessed by magnetic stimulation of the femoral nerve in normal subjects. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 24: 276–280, 2004.
Handelsman DJ, Hirschberg AL, Bermon S. Circulating testosterone as the hormonal basis of sex differences in athletic performance. Endocr Rev 39: 803–829, 2018.
Hannah R, Minshull C, Buckthorpe MW, Folland JP. Explosive neuromuscular performance of males versus females. Exp Physiol 97: 618–629, 2012.
Hanten WP, Chen WY, Austin AA, et al. Maximum grip strength in normal subjects from 20 to 64 years of age. J Hand Ther 12: 193–200, 1999.
Harbo T, Brincks J, Andersen H. Maximal isokinetic and isometric muscle strength of major muscle groups related to age, body mass, height, and sex in 178 healthy subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol 112: 267–275, 2012.
Harridge SD, Kryger A, Stensgaard A. Knee extensor strength, activation, and size in very elderly people following strength training. Muscle Nerve 22: 831–839, 1999.
Harrington JM, Schwenke DC, Epstein DR. Exercise preferences among men with prostate cancer receiving androgen-deprivation therapy. Oncol Nurs Forum 40: E358–E367, 2013.
Hartung CM, Widiger TA. Gender differences in the diagnosis of mental disorders: Conclusions and controversies of the DSM-IV. Psychol Bull 123: 260–278, 1998.
Hauret KG, Bedno S, Loringer K, et al. Epidemiology of exercise- and sports-related injuries in a population of young, physically active adults: A survey of military servicemembers. Am J Sports Med 43: 2645–2653, 2015.
Hepping AM, Ploegmakers JJ, Geertzen JH, Bulstra SK, Stevens M. The influence of hand preference on grip strength in children and adolescents: A cross-sectional study of 2284 children and adolescents. PLoS One 10: e0143476, 2015.
Herzog W, Sartorio A, Lafortuna CL, et al. Commentaries on viewpoint: Can muscle size fully account for strength differences between children and adults? J Appl Physiol 110: 1750–1753, 2011, discussion on page 1754.
Hida T, Ando K, Kobayashi K, et al. Ultrasound measurement of thigh muscle thickness for assessment of sarcopenia. Nagoya J Med Sci 80: 519–527, 2018.
Hill EC, Housh TJ, Smith CM, et al. Effect of sex on torque, recovery, EMG, and MMG responses to fatigue. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 16: 310–317, 2016.
Hilton EN, Lundberg TR. Transgender women in the female category of sport: Perspectives on testosterone suppression and performance advantage. Sports Med 51: 199–214, 2021.
Hoeger WWK, Hopkins DR. A comparison of the sit and reach and the modified sit and reach in the measurement of flexibility in women. Res Q Exerc Sport 63: 191–195, 1992.
Hoeger WWK, Hopkins DR, Barette SL, Hale DF. Relationship between repetitions and selected percentages of one repetition maximum: A comparison between untrained and trained males and females. J Appl Sport Sci Res 4: 47–54, 1990.
Hogrel JY. Grip strength measured by high precision dynamometry in healthy subjects from 5 to 80 years. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 16: 139, 2015.
Hollander DB, Kraemer RR, Kilpatrick MW, et al. Maximal eccentric and concentric strength discrepancies between young men and women for dynamic resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res 21: 34–40, 2007.
Hooper DR, Kraemer WJ, Focht BC, et al. Endocrinological roles for testosterone in resistance exercise responses and adaptations. Sports Med 47: 1709–1720, 2017.
Horwath O, Moberg M, Larsen FJ, et al. Influence of sex and fiber type on the satellite cell pool in human skeletal muscle. Scand J Med Sci Sports 31: 303–312, 2021.
Hosler WW, Morrow JR Jr. Arm and leg strength compared between young women and men after allowing for differences in body size and composition. Ergonomics 25: 309–313, 1982.
Hostler D, Crill MT, Hagerman FC, Staron RS. The effectiveness of 0.5-lb increments in progressive resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res 15: 86–91, 2001.
Houston JM, Harris PB, Moore R, Brummett R, Kametani H. Competitiveness among Japanese, Chinese, and American undergraduate students. Psychol Rep 97: 205–212, 2005.
Hubal MJ, Clarkson PM. Counterpoint: Estrogen and sex do not significantly influence post-exercise Indexes of muscle damage, inflammation, and repair. J Appl Physiol 106: 1012–1014, 2009, discussion 1014, 1022.
Hubal MJ, Gordish-Dressman H, Thompson PD, et al. Variability in muscle size and strength gain after unilateral resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 37: 964–972, 2005.
Huebner M, Meltzer D, Ma W, Arrow H. The masters athlete in Olympic weightlifting: Training, lifestyle, health challenges, and gender differences. PLoS One 15: e0243652, 2020.
Huebner M, Meltzer DE, Perperoglou A. Age-associated performance decline and sex differences in Olympic weightlifting. Med Sci Sports Exerc 51: 2302–2308, 2019.
Humphries B, Duncan MJ, Mummery WK. Prevalence and correlates of resistance training in a regional Australian population. Br J Sports Med 44: 653–656, 2010.
Humphries B, Stanton R, Scanlan A, Duncan MJ. The prevalence and performance of resistance exercise training activities in an Australian population in relation to health authority guidelines. J Sci Med Sport 21: 616–620, 2018.
Hunter GR. Changes in body composition, body build and performance associated with different training frequencies in males and females. Natl Strength Cond Assoc J 7: 26–28, 1985.
Hunter GR, Bryan DR, Wetzstein CJ, Zuckerman PA, Bamman MM. Resistance training and intra-abdominal adipose tissue in older men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 1023–1028, 2002.
Hunter SK. Sex differences in human fatigability: Mechanisms and insight to physiological responses. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 210: 768–789, 2014.
Hunter SK. The relevance of sex differences in performance fatigability. Med Sci Sports Exerc 48: 2247–2256, 2016.
Hunter SK. Sex differences in fatigability of dynamic contractions. Exp Physiol 101: 250–255, 2016.
Hunter SK, Butler JE, Todd G, Gandevia SC, Taylor JL. Supraspinal fatigue does not explain the sex difference in muscle fatigue of maximal contractions. J Appl Physiol 101: 1036–1044, 2006.
Hunter SK, Enoka RM. Sex differences in the fatigability of arm muscles depends on absolute force during isometric contractions. J Appl Physiol 91: 2686–2694, 2001.
Hunter SK, Lepers R, MacGillis CJ, Enoka RM. Activation among the elbow flexor muscles differs when maintaining arm position during a fatiguing contraction. J Appl Physiol 94: 2439–2447, 2003.
Hurley KS, Flippin KJ, Blom LC, et al. Practices, perceived benefits, and barriers to resistance training among women enrolled in college. Int J Exerc Sci 11: 226–238, 2018.
Iannuzzi-Sucich M, Prestwood KM, Kenny AM. Prevalence of sarcopenia and predictors of skeletal muscle mass in healthy, older men and women. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 57: M772–M777, 2002.
Ichinose Y, Kanehisa H, Ito M, Kawakami Y, Fukunaga T. Morphological and functional differences in the elbow extensor muscle between highly trained male and female athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 78: 109–114, 1998.
Ingram BJ, Thomas CL. Transgender policy in sport, a review of current policy and commentary of the challenges of policy creation. Curr Sports Med Rep 18: 239–247, 2019.
Ivey FM, Tracy BL, Lemmer JT, et al. Effects of strength training and detraining on muscle quality: Age and gender comparisons. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 55: B152–B157, 2000, discussion B158–B159.
Janssen I, Heymsfield SB, Wang ZM, Ross R. Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18-88 yr. J Appl Physiol 89: 81–88, 2000.
Janz KF, Dawson JD, Mahoney LT. Tracking physical fitness and physical activity from childhood to adolescence: The muscatine study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32: 1250–1257, 2000.
Jaworowski A, Porter MM, Holmbäck AM, Downham D, Lexell J. Enzyme activities in the tibialis anterior muscle of young moderately active men and women: Relationship with body composition, muscle cross-sectional area and fibre type composition. Acta Physiol Scand 176: 215–225, 2002.
Jensen B, Braun W, Geisler C, et al. Limitations of fat-free mass for the assessment of muscle mass in obesity. Obes Facts 12: 307–315, 2019.
Jeon Y, Choi J, Kim HJ, et al. Sex- and fiber-type-related contractile properties in human single muscle fiber. J Exerc Rehabil 15: 537–545, 2019.
Jonason PK. An evolutionary psychology perspective on sex differences in exercise behaviors and motivations. J Soc Psychol 147: 5–14, 2007.
Jones BA, Arcelus J, Bouman WP, Haycraft E. Sport and transgender people: A aystematic review of the literature relating to sport participation and competitive sport policies. Sports Med 47: 701–716, 2017.
Jones BA, Arcelus J, Bouman WP, Haycraft E. Authors' reply to Richardson and Chen: Comment on "sport and transgender people: A systematic review of the literature relating to sport participation and competitive sport policies". Sports Med 50: 1861–1862, 2020.
Jones CS, Christensen C, Young M. Weight training injury trends: A 20-year survey. Phys Sportsmed 28: 61–72, 2000.
Jones MA, Hitchen PJ, Stratton G. The importance of considering biological maturity when assessing physical fitness measures in girls and boys aged 10 to 16 years. Ann Hum Biol 27: 57–65, 2000.
Jones MD, Wewege MA, Hackett DA, Keogh JWL, Hagstrom AD. Sex differences in adaptations in muscle strength and size following resistance training in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med 51: 503–517, 2021.
Jordan A, Mehlsen J, Bülow PM, Ostergaard K, Danneskiold-Samsøe B. Maximal isometric strength of the cervical musculature in 100 healthy volunteers. Spine 24: 1343–1348, 1999.
Kanehisa H, Ikegawa S, Fukunaga T. Comparison of muscle cross-sectional area and strength between untrained women and men. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 68: 148–154, 1994.
Karazsia BT, Murnen SK, Tylka TL. Is body dissatisfaction changing across time? A cross-temporal meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 143: 293–320, 2017.
Katsiaras A, Newman AB, Kriska A, et al. Skeletal muscle fatigue, strength, and quality in the elderly: The health ABC study. J Appl Physiol 99: 210–216, 2005.
Katzmarzyk PT, Malina RM, Beunen GP. The contribution of biological maturation to the strength and motor fitness of children. Ann Hum Biol 24: 493–505, 1997.
Kavanagh JJ, Smith KA, Minahan CL. Sex differences in muscle activity emerge during sustained low-intensity contractions but not during intermittent low-intensity contractions. Physiol Rep 8: e14398, 2020.
Kawakami R, Miyachi M, Tanisawa K, et al. Development and validation of a simple anthropometric equation to predict appendicular skeletal muscle mass. Clin Nutr 40: 5523–5530, 2021.
Keller JL, Housh TJ, Hill EC, et al. Sex-related differences in performance fatigability independent of blood flow following a sustained muscle action at a low perceptual intensity. J Sci Sport Exerc 2: 173–182, 2020.
Keller ML, Pruse J, Yoon T, et al. Supraspinal fatigue is similar in men and women for a low-force fatiguing contraction. Med Sci Sports Exerc 43: 1873–1883, 2011.
Kent-Braun JA, Ng AV, Doyle JW, Towse TF. Human skeletal muscle responses vary with age and gender during fatigue due to incremental isometric exercise. J Appl Physiol 93: 1813–1823, 2002.
Keogh J, Hume PA, Pearson S. Retrospective injury epidemiology of one hundred one competitive Oceania power lifters: The effects of age, body mass, competitive standard, and gender. J Strength Cond Res 20: 672–681, 2006.
Kerr ZY, Collins CL, Comstock RD. Epidemiology of weight training-related injuries presenting to United States emergency departments, 1990 to 2007. Am J Sports Med 38: 765–771, 2010.
Khoury-Murphy M, Murphy MD. Southern (bar)belles: The cultural problematics of implementing a weight training program among older southern women. Play Cult 5: 409–419, 1992.
Kilpatrick M, Hebert E, Bartholomew J. College students' motivation for physical activity: Differentiating men's and women's motives for sport participation and exercise. J Am Coll Health 54: 87–94, 2005.
Kim J, Wang Z, Heymsfield SB, Baumgartner RN, Gallagher D. Total-body skeletal muscle mass: Estimation by a new dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry method. Am J Clin Nutr 76: 378–383, 2002.
Kim JW, Kwon Y, Chung HY, et al. Age-sex differences in the hip abductor muscle properties. Geriatr Gerontol Int 11: 333–340, 2011.
Kim PS, Mayhew JL, Peterson DF. A modified YMCA bench press test as a predictor of 1 repetition maximum bench press strength. J Strength Cond Res 16: 440–445, 2002.
Kitamura I, Koda M, Otsuka R, Ando F, Shimokata H. Six-year longitudinal changes in body composition of middle-aged and elderly Japanese: Age and sex differences in appendicular skeletal muscle mass. Geriatr Gerontol Int 14: 354–361, 2014.
Koivula N. Sport participation: Differences in motivation and actual participation due to gender typing. J Sport Behav 22: 360–380, 1999.
Kosek DJ, Kim JS, Petrella JK, Cross JM, Bamman MM. Efficacy of 3 days/wk resistance training on myofiber hypertrophy and myogenic mechanisms in young vs. older adults. J Appl Physiol 101: 531–544, 2006.
Kowal M, Sorokowski P. Sex differences in physical attractiveness investments: Overlooked side of masculinity. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19: 3842, 2022.
Krivickas LS, Fielding RA, Murray A, et al. Sex differences in single muscle fiber power in older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 38: 57–63, 2006.
Kroll PG, Machado L, Happy C, Leong S, Chen B. The relationship between five measures of trunk strength. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil 14: 89–97, 2000.
Kubo K, Kanehisa H, Azuma K, et al. Muscle architectural characteristics in young and elderly men and women. Int J Sports Med 24: 125–130, 2003.
Kulkarni B, Kuper H, Taylor A, et al. Development and validation of anthropometric prediction equations for estimation of lean body mass and appendicular lean soft tissue in Indian men and women. J Appl Physiol 115: 1156–1162, 2013.
Kumar S. Arm lift strength in work space. Appl Ergon 22: 317–328, 1991.
Kumar S. Isolated planar trunk strengths measurement in normals: Part III—Results and database. Int J Ind Ergon 17: 103–111, 1996.
Kumar S, Chaffin DB, Redfern M. Isometric and isokinetic back and arm lifting strengths: Device and measurement. J Biomech 21: 35–44, 1988.
Kumar S, Narayan Y, Amell T. Cervical strength of young adults in sagittal, coronal, and intermediate planes. Clin Biomech 16: 380–388, 2001.
Kyle UG, Genton L, Hans D, et al. Age-related differences in fat-free mass, skeletal muscle, body cell mass and fat mass between 18 and 94 years. Eur J Clin Nutr 55: 663–672, 2001.
La Delfa NJ, Langstaff NM, Hoddler JN, Potvin JR. The interacting effects of forearm rotation and exertion direction on male and female wrist strength. Int J Ind Ergon 45: 124–128, 2015.
Lanning AC, Power GA, Christie AD, Dalton BH. Influence of sex on performance fatigability of the plantar flexors following repeated maximal dynamic shortening contractions. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 42: 1118–1121, 2017.
Larsson B, Kadi F, Lindvall B, Gerdle B. Surface electromyography and peak torque of repetitive maximum isokinetic plantar flexions in relation to aspects of muscle morphology. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 16: 281–290, 2006.
Larsson I, Bertéus Forslund H, Lindroos AK, et al. Body composition in the SOS (Swedish Obese Subjects) reference study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28: 1317–1324, 2004.
Lassek WD, Gaulin SJC. Costs and benefits of fat-free muscle mass in men: Relationship to mating success, dietary requirements, and native immunity. Evol Hum Behav 30: 322–328, 2009.
Latella C, Teo WP, Spathis J, van den Hoek D. Long-term strength adaptation: A 15-year analysis of powerlifting athletes. J Strength Cond Res 34: 2412–2418, 2020.
Latella C, Van den Hoek D, Teo W-P. Factors affecting powerlifting performance: An analysis of age- and weight-based determinants of relative strength. Int J Perform Anal Sport 18: 532–544, 2018.
Latella C, van den Hoek D, Teo WP. Differences in strength performance between novice and elite athletes: Evidence from powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 33(suppl 1): S103–S112, 2019.
Laubach LL. Comparative muscular strength of men and women: A review of the literature. Aviat Space Environ Med 47: 534–542, 1976.
Lee DH, Keum N, Hu FB, et al. Development and validation of anthropometric prediction equations for lean body mass, fat mass and percent fat in adults using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2006. Br J Nutr 118: 858–866, 2017.
Lee RC, Wang Z, Heo M, et al. Total-body skeletal muscle mass: Development and cross-validation of anthropometric prediction models. Am J Clin Nutr 72: 796–803, 2000.
Lee SY, Ahn S, Kim YJ, et al. Comparison between dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and bioelectrical impedance analyses for accuracy in measuring whole body muscle mass and appendicular skeletal muscle mass. Nutrients 10: 738, 2018.
Leenders M, Verdijk LB, van der Hoeven L, et al. Elderly men and women benefit equally from prolonged resistance-type exercise training. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 68: 769–779, 2013.
Lemmer JT, Ivey FM, Ryan AS, et al. Effect of strength training on resting metabolic rate and physical activity: Age and gender comparisons. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33: 532–541, 2001.
Leong DP, Teo KK, Rangarajan S, et al. Reference ranges of handgrip strength from 125,462 healthy adults in 21 countries: A prospective urban rural epidemiologic (PURE) study. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 7: 535–546, 2016.
Lexell J, Downham DY, Larsson Y, Bruhn E, Morsing B. Heavy-resistance training in older Scandinavian men and women: Short- and long-term effects on arm and leg muscles. Scand J Med Sci Sports 5: 329–341, 1995.
Liao WC, Wang CH, Yu SY, Chen LY, Wang CY. Grip strength measurement in older adults in Taiwan: A comparison of three testing positions. Australas J Ageing 33: 278–282, 2014.
Lindle RS, Metter EJ, Lynch NA, et al. Age and gender comparisons of muscle strength in 654 women and men aged 20-93 yr. J Appl Physiol 83: 1581–1587, 1997.
Lippa RA. Sex differences in personality traits and gender-related occupational preferences across 53 nations: Testing evolutionary and social-environmental theories. Arch Sex Behav 39: 619–636, 2010.
Livingstone MB, Robson PJ, McCarthy S, et al. Physical activity patterns in a nationally representative sample of adults in Ireland. Public Health Nutr 4: 1107–1116, 2001.
Lockie RG, Orr RM, Stierli M, et al. Physical characteristics by sex and age for custody assistants from a law enforcement agency. J Strength Cond Res 33: 2223–2232, 2019.
Loustalot F, Carlson SA, Kruger J, Buchner DM, Fulton JE. Muscle-strengthening activities and participation among adults in the United States. Res Q Exerc Sport 84: 30–38, 2013.
Lynch SM, Zellner DA. Figure preferences in two generations of men: The use of figure drawings illustrating differences in muscle mass. Sex Roles 40: 833–843, 1999.
Maden-Wilkinson TM, McPhee JS, Rittweger J, Jones DA, Degens H. Thigh muscle volume in relation to age, sex and femur volume. Age 36: 383–393, 2014.
Maher AC, Fu MH, Isfort RJ, et al. Sex differences in global mRNA content of human skeletal muscle. PLoS One 4: e6335, 2009.
Marcell TJ, Hawkins SA, Wiswell RA. Leg strength declines with advancing age despite habitual endurance exercise in active older adults. J Strength Cond Res 28: 504–513, 2014.
Markland D, Hardy L. The exercise motivations inventory: Preliminary development and validity of a measure of individual's reasons for participation in regular physical exercise. Pers Individ Dif 15: 289–296, 1993.
Martel GF, Roth SM, Ivey FM, et al. Age and sex affect human muscle fibre adaptations to heavy-resistance strength training. Exp Physiol 91: 457–464, 2006.
Martin PG, Rattey J. Central fatigue explains sex differences in muscle fatigue and contralateral cross-over effects of maximal contractions. Pflügers Arch 454: 957–969, 2007.
Martinez CT, Gillepsie K, Bale S. Exercise motivation: The role of gender, age, and body mass Index. Int J Health Wellness Soc 4, 2014.
Massy-Westropp NM, Gill TK, Taylor AW, Bohannon RW, Hill CL. Hand grip strength: Age and gender stratified normative data in a population-based study. BMC Res Notes 4: 127, 2011.
Mathes SA, Battista R. College men's and women's motives for participation in physical activity. Percept Mot Skills 61: 719–726, 1985.
Mathiowetz V, Kashman N, Volland G, et al. Grip and pinch strength: Normative data for adults. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 66: 69–74, 1985.
Mathiowetz V, Wiemer DM, Federman SM. Grip and pinch strength: Norms for 6- to 19-year-olds. Am J Occup Ther 40: 705–711, 1986.
Maughan RJ, Harmon M, Leiper JB, Sale D, Delman A. Endurance capacity of untrained males and females in isometric and dynamic muscular contractions. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 55: 395–400, 1986.
Maughan RJ, Watson JS, Weir J. Strength and cross-sectional area of human skeletal muscle. J Physiol 338: 37–49, 1983.
Mayhew JL, Ball TE, Arnold MD, Bowen JC. Relative muscular endurance performance as a predictor of bench press strength in college men and women. J Appl Sport Sci Res 6: 200–206, 1992.
Mayhew JL, Ball TE, Bowen JC. Prediction of bench press lifting ability from submaximal repetitions before and after training. Res Sports Med 3: 195–201, 1992.
Mayhew JL, Brechue WF, Smith AE, et al. Impact of testing strategy on expression of upper-body work capacity and one-repetition maximum prediction after resistance training in college-aged men and women. J Strength Cond Res 25: 2796–2807, 2011.
Mayhew JL, Hancock K, Rollison L, Ball TE, Bowen JC. Contributions of strength and body composition to the gender difference in anaerobic power. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 41: 33–38, 2001.
Mayhew JL, Salm PC. Gender differences in anaerobic power tests. Eur J Appl Physiol 60: 133–138, 1990.
Mayr U, Wozniak D, Davidson C, Kuhns D, Harbaugh WT. Competitiveness across the life span: The feisty fifties. Psychol Aging 27: 278–285, 2012.
McCabe MP, James T. Strategies to change body shape among men and women who attend fitness centers. Asia Pac J Public Health 21: 262–278, 2009.
McCreary DR, Sasse DK. An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls. J Am Coll Health 48: 297–304, 2000.
McPhee JS, Maden-Wilkinson TM, Narici MV, Jones DA, Degens H. Knee extensor fatigue resistance of young and older men and women performing sustained and brief intermittent isometric contractions. Muscle Nerve 50: 393–400, 2014.
McQuiddy VA, Scheerer CR, Lavalley R, McGrath T, Lin L. Normative values for grip and pinch strength for 6- to 19-year-olds. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 96: 1627–1633, 2015.
Mealey L. Bulking up: The roles of sex and sexual orientation on attempts to manipulate physical attractiveness. J Sex Res 34: 223–228, 1997.
Merrigan JJ, White JB, Hu YE, et al. Differences in elbow extensor muscle characteristics between resistance-trained men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 118: 2359–2366, 2018.
Mersmann F, Bohm S, Schroll A, et al. Muscle shape consistency and muscle volume prediction of thigh muscles. Scand J Med Sci Sports 25: e208–e213, 2015.
Metcalf E, Hagstrom AD, Marshall PW. Trained females exhibit less fatigability than trained males after a heavy knee extensor resistance exercise session. Eur J Appl Physiol 119: 181–190, 2019.
Methany E. The present status of strength testing for children of elementary school and preschool age. Res Q 12: 115–130, 1941.
Michaelidou N, Moraes C. An evolutionary psychology perspective on physical exercise motives: Implications for social marketing. J Nonprofit Public Sect Market 26: 162–183, 2014.
Miller AEJ, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, Sale DG. Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristics. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 66: 254–262, 1993.
Miller RM, Freitas ED, Heishman AD, et al. Maximal power production as a function of sex and training status. Biol Sport 36: 31–37, 2019.
Miyaguchi K, Demura S. Gender difference in ability using the stretch-shortening cycle in the upper extremities. J Strength Cond Res 23: 231–236, 2009.
Molanorouzi K, Khoo S, Morris T. Motives for adult participation in physical activity: Type of activity, age, and gender. BMC Public Health 15: 66, 2015.
Molenaar HM, Selles RW, Zuidam JM, et al. Growth diagrams for grip strength in children. Clin Orthop Relat Res 468: 217–223, 2010.
Molenaar JP, McNeil CJ, Bredius MS, Gandevia SC. Effects of aging and sex on voluntary activation and peak relaxation rate of human elbow flexors studied with motor cortical stimulation. Age 35: 1327–1337, 2013.
Montoye HJ, Lamphiear DE. Grip and arm strength in males and females, age 10 to 69. Res Q 48: 109–120, 1977.
Morawetz D, Blank C, Koller A, et al. Sex-related differences after a single bout of maximal eccentric exercise in response to acute effects: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 34: 2697–2707, 2020.
Neu CM, Rauch F, Rittweger J, Manz F, Schoenau E. Influence of puberty on muscle development at the forearm. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 283: E103–E107, 2002.
Newman DG, Pearn J, Barnes A, et al. Norms for hand grip strength. Arch Dis Child 59: 453–459, 1984.
Nickerson BS, Williams TD, Snarr RL, Garza JM, Salinas G. Evaluation of load-velocity relationships and repetitions-to-failure equations in the presence of male and female spotters. J Strength Cond Res 34: 2427–2433, 2020.
Niederle M, Vesterlund L. Gender and competition. Annu Rev Econ 3: 601–630, 2011.
Nishikawa Y, Watanabe K, Takahashi T, et al. Sex differences in variances of multi-channel surface electromyography distribution of the vastus lateralis muscle during isometric knee extension in young adults. Eur J Appl Physiol 117: 583–589, 2017.
Nordgren B. Anthropometric measures and muscle strength in young women. Scand J Rehabil Med 4: 165–169, 1972.
Nuzzo JL. Equity in physical activity: A misguided goal. Sports Med 49: 501–507, 2019.
Nuzzo JL. Men's health in the United States: A national health paradox. Aging Male 23: 42–52, 2020.
Nuzzo JL. Sex difference in participation in muscle-strengthening activities. J Lifestyle Med 10: 92–101, 2020.
Nuzzo JL. Content analysis of patents for strength training equipment filed in the United States before 1980. J Strength Cond Res 35: 2952–2962, 2021.
Nuzzo JL. History of strength training research in man: An inventory and quantitative overview of studies published in English between 1894 and 1979. J Strength Cond Res 35: 1425–1448, 2021.
Nuzzo JL, Barry BK, Jones MD, Gandevia SC, Taylor JL. Effects of four weeks of strength training on the corticomotoneuronal pathway. Med Sci Sports Exerc 49: 2286–2296, 2017.
Nuzzo JL, Nosaka K. Comment on: “Stepwise load reduction training: A new training concept for skeletal muscle and energy systems”. Sports Med 52: 2297-2300, 2022.
Nuzzo JL, Taylor JL, Gandevia SC. CORP: Measurement of upper and lower limb muscle strength and voluntary activation. J Appl Physiol 126: 513–543, 2019.
Nygaard E, Houston M, Suzuki Y, Jorgensen K, Saltin B. Morphology of the brachial biceps muscle and elbow flexion in man. Acta Physiol Scand 117: 287–292, 1983.
O'Hagan F, Tsunoda N, Sale DG, MacDougall JD. Elbow flexor evoked twitch contractile properties in untrained men and women and male bodybuilders. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 66: 240–245, 1993.
O'Hagan FT, Sale DG, MacDougall JD, Garner SH. Response to resistance training in young women and men. Int J Sports Med 16: 314–321, 1995.
O'Shea JP, Wegner J. Power weight training and the female athlete. Phys Sportsmed 9: 109–120, 1981.
O'Brien TD, Reeves ND, Baltzopoulos V, Jones DA, Maganaris CN. In vivo measurements of muscle specific tension in adults and children. Exp Physiol 95: 202–210, 2010.
O'Leary DD, Hope K, Sale DG. Influence of gender on post-tetanic potentiation in human dorsiflexors. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 76: 772–779, 1998.
Ofenheimer A, Breyer-Kohansal R, Hartl S, et al. Reference values of body composition parameters and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) by DXA in adults aged 18-81 years-results from the LEAD cohort. Eur J Clin Nutr 74: 1181–1191, 2020.
Ordway NR, Hand N, Briggs G, Ploutz-Snyder LL. Reliability of knee and ankle strength measures in an older adult population. J Strength Cond Res 20: 82–87, 2006.
Paalanne NP, Korpelainen R, Taimela SP, Remes J, Salakka M, Karppinen JI. Reproducibility and reference values of inclinometric balance and isometric trunk muscle strength measurements in Finnish young adults. J Strength Cond Res 23: 1618–1626, 2009.
Park N, Kim SA, Oh K, et al. Association between vitamin E and handgrip strength in the Korean general population in KNHANES VII (2018). Ann Rehabil Med 45: 170–177, 2021.
Parker DF, Round JM, Sacco P, Jones DA. A cross-sectional survey of upper and lower limb strength in boys and girls during childhood and adolescence. Ann Hum Biol 17: 199–211, 1990.
Payne N, Gledhill N, Katzmarzyk PT, Jamnik VK, Keir PJ. Canadian musculoskeletal fitness norms. Can J Appl Physiol 25: 430–442, 2000.
Peiffer JJ, Galvão DA, Gibbs Z, et al. Strength and functional characteristics of men and women 65 years and older. Rejuvenation Res 13: 75–82, 2010.
Peolsson A, Hedlund R, Oberg B. Intra- and inter-tester reliability and reference values for hand strength. J Rehabil Med 33: 36–41, 2001.
Perna FM, Coa K, Troiano RP, et al. Muscular grip strength estimates of the U.S. population from the national health and nutrition examination survey 2011-2012. J Strength Cond Res 30: 867–874, 2016.
Peters NA, Schlaff RA, Knous JL, Baruth M. Barriers to resistance training among college-aged women. J Am Coll Health 67: 4–9, 2019.
Phillips WT, Batterham AM, Valenzuela JE, Burkett LN. Reliability of maximal strength testing in older adults. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85: 329–334, 2004.
Piko BF, Skultéti D, Luszczynska A, Gibbons FX. Social orientations and adolescent health behaviours in Hungary. Int J Psychol 45: 12–20, 2010.
Pincivero DM, Campy RM, Coelho AJ. Knee flexor torque and perceived exertion: A gender and reliability analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: 1720–1726, 2003.
Pincivero DM, Coelho AJ, Campy RM. Perceived exertion and maximal quadriceps femoris muscle strength during dynamic knee extension exercise in young adult males and females. Eur J Appl Physiol 89: 150–156, 2003.
Ploegmakers JJ, Hepping AM, Geertzen JH, Bulstra SK, Stevens M. Grip strength is strongly associated with height, weight and gender in childhood: A cross sectional study of 2241 children and adolescents providing reference values. J Physiother 59: 255–261, 2013.
Poiss CC, Sullivan PA, Paup DC, Westerman BJ. Perceived importance of weight training to selected NCAA Division III men and women student-athletes. J Strength Cond Res 18: 108–114, 2004.
Pope HG Jr, Kanayama G, Athey A, et al. The lifetime prevalence of anabolic-androgenic steroid use and dependence in Americans: Current best estimates. Am J Addict 23: 371–374, 2014.
Portela-Pino I, López-Castedo A, Martínez-Patiño MJ, Valverde-Esteve T, Domínguez-Alonso J. Gender differences in motivation and barriers for the practice of physical exercise in adolescence. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17: 168, 2019.
Porter MM, Myint A, Kramer JF, Vandervoort AA. Concentric and eccentric knee extension strength in older and younger men and women. Can J Appl Physiol 20: 429–439, 1995.
Porter MM, Stuart S, Boij M, Lexell J. Capillary supply of the tibialis anterior muscle in young, healthy, and moderately active men and women. J Appl Physiol 92: 1451–1457, 2002.
Powell KE, Heath GW, Kresnow MJ, Sacks JJ, Branche CM. Injury rates from walking, gardening, weightlifting, outdoor bicycling, and aerobics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30: 1246–1249, 1998.
Prättälä R, Paalanen L, Grinberga D, et al. Gender differences in the consumption of meat, fruit and vegetables are similar in Finland and the Baltic countries. Eur J Public Health 17: 520–525, 2007.
Pratto F, Stallworth LM, Sidanius J. The gender gap: Differences in political attitudes and social dominance orientation. Br J Soc Psychol 36(pt 1): 49–68, 1997.
Probert A, Leberman S, Palmer F. New Zealand bodybuilder identities: Beyond homogeneity. Int Rev Soc Sport 42: 5–26, 2007.
Proctor DN, O'Brien PC, Atkinson EJ, Nair KS. Comparison of techniques to estimate total body skeletal muscle mass in people of different age groups. Am J Physiol 277: E489–E495, 1999.
Quatman CE, Myer GD, Khoury J, Wall EJ, Hewett TE. Sex differences in "weightlifting" injuries presenting to United States emergency rooms. J Strength Cond Res 23: 2061–2067, 2009.
Quetelet MA. A Treatise on Man and the Development of His Faculties. Edinburgh: William and Robert Chambers, 1842. p. 67–70.
Rankin G, Stokes M, Newham DJ. Abdominal muscle size and symmetry in normal subjects. Muscle Nerve 34: 320–326, 2006.
Rantalainen T, Heinonen A, Komi PV, Linnamo V. Neuromuscular performance and bone structural characteristics in young healthy men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 102: 215–222, 2008.
Rantanen T, Era P, Heikkinen E. Physical activity and the changes in maximal isometric strength in men and women from the age of 75 to 80 years. J Am Geriatr Soc 45: 1439–1445, 1997.
Rapport F, Hutchings H, Doel MA, et al. How are university gyms used by staff and students? A mixed-method study exploring gym use, motivation, and communication in three UK gyms. Societies 8: 15, 2018.
Raske A, Norlin R. Injury incidence and prevalence among elite weight and power lifters. Am J Sports Med 30: 248–256, 2002.
Ratamess NA, Faigenbaum AD, Hoffman JR, Kang J. Self-selected resistance training intensity in healthy women: The influence of a personal trainer. J Strength Cond Res 22: 103–111, 2008.
Reading JM, LaRose JG. Exercise preferences among emerging adults: Do men and women want different things? J Am Coll Health 70: 1301–1305, 2020.
Redwood D, Schumacher MC, Lanier AP, et al. Physical activity patterns of American Indian and Alaskan Native people living in Alaska and the Southwestern United States. Am J Health Promot 23: 388–395, 2009.
Reynolds JM, Gordon TJ, Robergs RA. Prediction of one repetition maximum strength from multiple repetition maximum testing and anthropometry. J Strength Cond Res 20: 584–592, 2006.
Rhea MR, Landers DV, Alvar BA, Ardent SM. The effects of competition and the presence of an audience on weight lifting performance. J Strength Cond Res 17: 303–306, 2003.
Rhodes RE, Lubans DR, Karunamuni N, Kennedy S, Plotnikoff R. Factors associated with participation in resistance training: A systematic review. Br J Sports Med 51: 1466–1472, 2017.
Ribeiro AS, Avelar A, Nascimento MA, et al. What is the actual relative intensity of a resistance training program for men and women? Isokinet Exerc Sci 22: 217–224, 2014.
Ribeiro AS, Avelar A, Schoenfeld BJ, et al. Effect of 16 weeks of resistance training on fatigue resistance in men and women. J Hum Kinet 42: 165–174, 2014.
Ribeiro AS, Campos-Filho MGA, Ademar A, et al. Effect of resistance training on flexibility in young adult men and women. Isokinet Exerc Sci 25: 149–155, 2017.
Ribeiro AS, Do Nascimento MA, Salvador EP, et al. Reliability of one-repetition maximum test in untrained young adult men and women. Isokinet Exerc Sci 22: 175–182, 2014.
Richards LG. Posture effects on grip strength. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 78: 1154–1166, 1997.
Richards RR, Gordon R, Beaton D. Measurement of wrist, metacarpophalangeal joint, and thumb extension strength in a normal population. J Hand Surg Am 18: 253–261, 1993.
Richardson A, Chen MA. Comment on: "Sport and transgender people: A systematic review of the literature relating to sport participation and competitive sport policies". Sports Med 50: 1857–1859, 2020.
Ritti Dias RM, Cyrino ES, Salvador EP, et al. Impact of an eight-week training program on the muscular strength of men and women. Rev Bras Med Esporte 11: 213–216, 2005.
Roberts BM, Nuckols G, Krieger JW. Sex differences in resistance training: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 34: 1448–1460, 2020.
Roepstorff C, Thiele M, Hillig T, et al. Higher skeletal muscle alpha2AMPK activation and lower energy charge and fat oxidation in men than in women during submaximal exercise. J Physiol 574: 125–138, 2006.
Rogers LQ, Markwell SJ, Verhulst S, McAuley E, Courneya KS. Rural breast cancer survivors: Exercise preferences and their determinants. Psychooncology 18: 412–421, 2009.
Roth SM, Ivey FM, Martel GF, et al. Muscle size responses to strength training in young and older men and women. J Am Geriatr Soc 49: 1428–1433, 2001.
Round JM, Jones DA, Honour JW, Nevill AM. Hormonal factors in the development of differences in strength between boys and girls during adolescence: A longitudinal study. Ann Hum Biol 26: 49–62, 1999.
Roy AL, Keller TS, Colloca CJ. Posture-dependent trunk extensor EMG activity during maximum isometrics exertions in normal male and female subjects. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 13: 469–476, 2003.
Russ DW, Lanza IR, Rothman D, Kent-Braun JA. Sex differences in glycolysis during brief, intense isometric contractions. Muscle Nerve 32: 647–655, 2005.
Russ DW, Towse TF, Wigmore DM, Lanza IR, Kent-Braun JA. Contrasting influences of age and sex on muscle fatigue. Med Sci Sports 40: 234–241, 2008.
Sale DG, MacDougall JD, Alway SE, Sutton JR. Voluntary strength and muscle characteristics in untrained men and women and male bodybuilders. J Appl Physiol 62: 1786–1793, 1987.
Salvador EP, Cyrino ES, Gurjao AL, et al. A comparison of motor performance between men and women in multiple sets of weight exercises. Rev Bras Med Esporte 11: 242e–245e, 2005.
Salvador EP, Ritti Dias RM, Demantova Gurjao AL, et al. Effect of eight weeks of strength training on fatigue resistance in men and women. Isokinet Exerc Sci 17: 101–106, 2009.
Salvatore J, Marecek J. Gender in the gym: Evaluation concerns as barriers to women's weight lifting. Sex Roles 63: 556–567, 2010.
Sanada K, Kearns CF, Midorikawa T, Abe T. Prediction and validation of total and regional skeletal muscle mass by ultrasound in Japanese adults. Eur J Appl Physiol 96: 24–31, 2006.
Sara LK, Gutsch SB, Hunter SK. The single-leg heel raise does not predict maximal plantar flexion strength in healthy males and females. PLoS One 16: e0253276, 2021.
Sato H, Ohashi J. Sex differences in static muscular endurance. J Hum Ergol 18: 53–60, 1989.
Scarapicchia TM, Sabiston CM, Faulkner G. Exploring the prevalence and correlates of meeting health behaviour guidelines among university students. Can J Public Health 106: e109–e114, 2015.
Schantz P, Randall-Fox E, Hutchison W, Tydén A, Astrand PO. Muscle fibre type distribution, muscle cross-sectional area and maximal voluntary strength in humans. Acta Physiol Scand 117: 219–226, 1983.
Schilaty ND, Bates NA, Hewett TE. Relative dearth of 'sex differences' research in sports medicine. J Sci Med Sport 21: 440–441, 2018.
Schmitt DP, Realo A, Voracek M, Allik J. Why can't a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in big five personality traits across 55 cultures. J Pers Soc Psychol 94: 168–182, 2008.
Scholes S, Mindell J. Chapter 2: Physical activity in adults. In: Health Survey England 2012: Health and Social Care Information Centre. 2012. pp. 15–16.
Sell A, Lukazsweski AW, Townsley M. Cues of upper body strength account for most of the variance in men's bodily attractiveness. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 284, 2017.
Sella GE. The hand grip: Gender, dominance and age considerations. Eur Med Phys 37: 161–170, 2001.
Seo A, Lee JH, Kusaka Y. Estimation of trunk muscle parameters for a biomechanical model by age, height and weight. J Occup Health 45: 197–201, 2003.
Seo DI, Kim E, Fahs CA, et al. Reliability of the one-repetition maximum test based on muscle group and gender. J Sports Sci Med 11: 221–225, 2012.
Sewright KA, Hubal MJ, Kearns A, Holbrook MT, Clarkson PM. Sex differences in response to maximal eccentric exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 40: 242–251, 2008.
Shafiee G, Ostovar A, Heshmat R, et al. Appendicular skeletal muscle mass reference values and the peak muscle mass to identify sarcopenia among Iranian healthy population. Int J Prev Med 9: 25, 2018.
Sharman MJ, Newton RU, Triplett-McBride T, et al. Changes in myosin heavy chain composition with heavy resistance training in 60- to 75-year-old men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 84: 127–132, 2001.
Sheaff AK, Bennett A, Hanson ED, et al. Physiological determinants of the candidate physical ability test in firefighters. J Strength Cond Res 24: 3112–3122, 2010.
Sherk KA, Bemben DA, Brickman SE, Bemben MG. Effects of resistance training duration on muscular strength retention 6-month posttraining in older men and women. J Geriatr Phys Ther 35: 20–27, 2012.
Shield A, Zhou S. Assessing voluntary muscle activation with the twitch interpolation technique. Sports Med 34: 235–267, 2004.
Shields M, Tremblay MS, Laviolette M, et al. Fitness of Canadian adults: Results from the 2007-2009 Canadian health measures surveys. Health Rep 21: 21–36, 2010.
Shiferaw B, Verrill L, Booth H, et al. Sex-based differences in food consumption: Foodborne diseases active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) population survey, 2006-2007. Clin Infect Dis 54(suppl 5): S453–S457, 2012.
Shih R, Wang Z, Heo M, Wang W, Heymsfield SB. Lower limb skeletal muscle mass: Development of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry prediction model. J Appl Physiol 89: 1380–1386, 2000.
Silva AM, Shen W, Heo M, et al. Ethnicity-related skeletal muscle differences across the lifespan. Am J Hum Biol 22: 76–82, 2010.
Simoneau JA, Bouchard C. Human variation in skeletal muscle fiber-type proportion and enzyme activities. Am J Physiol 257: E567–E572, 1989.
Simoneau JA, Lortie G, Boulay MR, et al. Skeletal muscle histochemical and biochemical characteristics in sedentary male and female subjects. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 63: 30–35, 1985.
Singh D. Female mate value at a glance: Relationship of waist-to-hip ratio to health, fecundity and attractiveness. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 23(suppl 4): 81–91, 2002.
Singh M, Karpovich PV. Strength of forearm flexors and extensors in men and women. J Appl Physiol 25: 177–180, 1968.
Skelton DA, Greig CA, Davies JM, Young A. Strength, power and related functional ability of healthy people aged 65-89 years. Age Ageing 23: 371–377, 1994.
Smith BL, Handley P, Eldredge DA. Sex differences in exercise motivation and body-image satisfaction among college students. Percept Mot Skills 86: 723–732, 1998.
Smith LE, Royce J. Muscular strength in relation to body composition. Ann N Y Acad Sci 110: 809–813, 1963.
Sood S, Hanson ED, Delmonico MJ, et al. Does insulin-like growth factor 1 genotype influence muscle power response to strength training in older men and women? Eur J Appl Physiol 112: 743–753, 2012.
Soriano MA, Haff GG, Comfort P, et al. Is there a relationship between the overhead press and split jerk maximum performance? Influence of sex. Int J Sports Sci Coach 17: 143–150, 2021.
South SC, Jarnecke AM, Vize CE. Sex differences in the big five model personality traits: A behavior genetics exploration. J Res Pers 74: 158–165, 2018.
Spence AJ, Helms ER, McGuigan MR. Stretching practices of international powerlifting federation unequipped powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res, 2020.
Springer BA, Mielcarek BJ, Nesfield TK, Teyhen DS. Relationships among lateral abdominal muscles, gender, body mass Index, and hand dominance. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 36: 289–297, 2006.
Stankowski CL, Trauntvein NE, Hall SL. I use the student recreation center, but I would use it more if: Understanding male and female constraints to student recreation center use. Recr Sports J 41: 55–66, 2017.
Staron RS, Hagerman FC, Hikida RS, et al. Fiber type composition of the vastus lateralis muscle of young men and women. J Histochem Cytochem 48: 623–629, 2000.
Steele J, Fisher J, Skivington M, et al. A higher effort-based paradigm in physical activity and exercise for public health: Making the case for a greater emphasis on resistance training. BMC Public Health 17: 300, 2017.
Steinfeldt JA, Carter H, Benton E, Steinfeldt MC. Muscularity beliefs of female college student-athletes. Sex Roles 64: 543–554, 2011.
Stock MS, Oranchuk DJ, Burton AM, Phan DC. Age-, sex-, and region-specific differences in skeletal muscle size and quality. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 45: 1253–1260, 2020.
Stokes M, Rankin G, Newham DJ. Ultrasound imaging of lumbar multifidus muscle: Normal reference ranges for measurements and practical guidance on the technique. Man Ther 10: 116–126, 2005.
Stoutenberg M, Warne J, Vidot D, Jimenez E, Read JP. Attitudes and preferences towards exercise training in individuals with alcohol use disorders in a residential treatment setting. J Subst Abuse Treat 49: 43–49, 2015.
Straight CR, Fedewa MV, Toth MJ, Miller MS. Improvements in skeletal muscle fiber size with resistance training are age-dependent in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Appl Physiol 129: 392–403, 2020.
Strain T, Fitzsimons C, Kelly P, Mutrie N. The forgotten guidelines: Cross-sectional analysis of participation in muscle strengthening and balance & co-ordination activities by adults and older adults in Scotland. BMC Public Health 16: 1108, 2016.
Strimpakos N, Sakellari V, Gioftsos G, Oldham J. Intratester and intertester reliability of neck isometric dynamometry. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85: 1309–1316, 2004.
Stromback E, Aasa U, Gilenstam K, Berglund L. Prevalence and consequences of injuries in powerlifting: A cross-sectional study. Orthop J Sports Med 6: 2325967118771016, 2018.
Strong CH. Motivation related to performance of physical fitness tests. Res Q 34: 497–507, 1963.
Stuart C, Steele J, Gentil P, Giessing J, Fisher JP. Fatigue and perceptual responses of heavier- and lighter-load isolated lumbar extension resistance exercise in males and females. PeerJ 6: e4523, 2018.
Stults-Kolehmainen MA, Ciccolo JT, Bartholomew JB, Seifert J, Portman RS. Age and gender-related changes in exercise motivation among highly active individuals. Athletic Insights 5: 45–63, 2013.
Su CY, Lin JH, Chien TH, Cheng KF, Sung YT. Grip strength in different positions of elbow and shoulder. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 75: 812–815, 1994.
Su R, Rounds J, Armstrong PI. Men and things, women and people: A meta-analysis of sex differences in interests. Psychol Bull 135: 859–884, 2009.
Suryanarayana L, Kumar S. Quantification of isometric cervical strength at different ranges of flexion and extension. Clin Biomech 20: 138–144, 2005.
Svendsen JH, Madeleine P. Amount and structure of force variability during short, ramp and sustained contractions in males and females. Hum Mov Sci 29: 35–47, 2010.
Swanson AB, Matev IB, de Groot G. The strength of the hand. Bull Prosthet Res 10: 145–153, 1970.
Takai Y, Ohta M, Akagi R, et al. Applicability of ultrasound muscle thickness measurements for predicting fat-free mass in elderly population. J Nutr Health Aging 18: 579–585, 2014.
Tan AEL, Grisbrook TL, Minaee N, Williams SA. Predicting 1 repetition maximum using handheld dynamometry. PM R 10: 934–941, 2018.
Tan S, Wang J, Liu S. Establishment of the prediction equations of 1RM skeletal muscle strength in 60- to 75-year-old Chinese men and women. J Aging Phys Act 23: 640–646, 2015.
Tanton LC, Cappaert TA, Gordon PM, et al. Strength, size, and muscle quality in the upper arm following unilateral training in younger and older males and females. Clin Med Arthritis Musculoskelet Disord 2: 9-18, 2009.
Teyhen DS, Childs JD, Stokes MJ, et al. Abdominal and lumbar multifidus muscle size and symmetry at rest and during contracted States. Normative reference ranges. J Ultrasound Med 31: 1099–1110, 2012.
Thomas GA, Kraemer WJ, Spiering BA, et al. Maximal power at different percentages of one repetition maximum: Influence of resistance and gender. J Strength Cond Res 21: 336–342, 2007.
Thorstensson A, Carlson H. Fibre types in human lumbar back muscles. Acta Physiol Scand 131: 195–202, 1987.
Tiggemann M, Williamson S. The effect of exercise on body satisfaction and self-esteem as a function of gender and age. Sex Roles 43: 119–127, 2000.
Tiwari PS, Gite LP, Majumder J, Pharade SC, Singh VV. Push/pull strength of agricultural workers in central India. Int J Ind Ergon 40: 1–7, 2010.
Toft I, Lindal S, Bønaa KH, Jenssen T. Quantitative measurement of muscle fiber composition in a normal population. Muscle Nerve 28: 101–108, 2003.
Torrejón A, Balsalobre-Fernández C, Haff GG, García-Ramos A. The load-velocity profile differs more between men and women than between individuals with different strength levels. Sports Biomech 18: 245–255, 2019.
Toskovic NN, Blessing D, Williford HN. Physiologic profile of recreational male and female novice and experienced Tae Kwon Do practitioners. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 44: 164–172, 2004.
Tracy BL, Ivey FM, Hurlbut D, et al. Muscle quality. II. Effects of strength training in 65- to 75-yr-old men and women. J Appl Physiol 86: 195–201, 1999.
Trappe S, Gallagher P, Harber M, et al. Single muscle fibre contractile properties in young and old men and women. J Physiol 552: 47–58, 2003.
Tremblay MS, Shields M, Laviolette M, et al. Fitness of Canadian children and youth: Results from the 2007-2009 Canadian health measures survey. Health Rep 21: 7–20, 2010.
Trevino MA, Sterczala AJ, Miller JD, et al. Sex-related differences in muscle size explained by amplitudes of higher-threshold motor unit action potentials and muscle fibre typing. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 225: e13151, 2019.
Valkeinen H, Ylinen J, Mälkiä E, Alen M, Häkkinen K. Maximal force, force/time and activation/coactivation characteristics of the neck muscles in extension and flexion in healthy men and women at different ages. Eur J Appl Physiol 88: 247–254, 2002.
van Uffelen JGZ, Khan A, Burton NW. Gender differences in physical activity motivators and context preferences: A population-based study in people in their sixties. BMC Public Health 17: 624, 2017.
Vandervoort AA, McComas AJ. Contractile changes in opposing muscles of the human ankle joint with aging. J Appl Physiol 61: 361–367, 1986.
Visser M, Deeg DJ, Lips P, Harris TB, Bouter LM. Skeletal muscle mass and muscle strength in relation to lower-extremity performance in older men and women. J Am Geriatr Soc 48: 381–386, 2000.
Waggoner M. Individual differences in interests and efforts of college women as related to a program of physical education. Res Q Exerc Sport 6: 86–95, 1935.
Walker H, Scarlett M, Williams B. Health Survey Northern Ireland: First Results 2013/14. Belfast, Northern Ireland: Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety. pp. 9-10; 2014.
Walts CT, Hanson ED, Delmonico MJ, et al. Do sex or race differences influence strength training effects on muscle or fat? Med Sci Sports Exerc 40: 669–676, 2008.
Wang CZ, Guo JY, Li TJ, et al. Age and sex effects on the active stiffness of vastus intermedius under isometric contraction. Biomed Res Int 2017: 9469548, 2017.
Wang YC, Bohannon RW, Li X, et al. Summary of grip strength measurements obtained in the 2011-2012 and 2013-2014 national health and nutrition examination surveys. J Hand Ther 32: 489–496, 2019.
Warner S, Dixon MA. Competition, gender and the sport experience: An exploration among college athletes. Sport Educ Soc 20: 527–545, 2015.
Watson T, McPherson S, Starr K. The association of nutritional status and gender with cross-sectional area of the multifidus muscle in establishing normative data. J Man Manip Ther 16: 93E–98E, 2008.
Weisberg YJ, Deyoung CG, Hirsh JB. Gender differences in personality across the ten aspects of the Big Five. Front Psychol 2: 178, 2011.
Weiss LW, Clark FC. Ultrasonic protocols for separately measuring subcutaneous fat and skeletal muscle thickness in the calf area. Phys Ther 65: 477–481, 1985.
Weiss LW, Clark FC, Howard DG. Effects of heavy-resistance triceps surae muscle training on strength and muscularity of men and women. Phys Ther 68: 208–213, 1988.
Weller S, Oliffe JL, Campbell KL. Factors associated with exercise preferences, barriers and facilitators of prostate cancer survivors. Eur J Cancer Care 28: e13135, 2019.
Werle S, Goldhahn J, Drerup S, et al. Age- and gender-specific normative data of grip and pinch strength in a healthy adult Swiss population. J Hand Surg Am 34: 76–84, 2009.
West DW, Phillips SM. Anabolic processes in human skeletal muscle: Restoring the identities of growth hormone and testosterone. Phys Sportsmed 38: 97–104, 2010.
White SJ, Forward EM. Serial changes in maximal isometric contraction of forearm flexor muscles. Phys Ther 46: 1061–1067, 1966.
Wibowo RKK, Soni P, Salokhe VM. Anthropometric dimensions, hand and isometric strength of farmers in East Java, Indonesia. Int Agric Eng J 22: 54–64, 2013.
Widrick JJ, Trappe SW, Blaser CA, Costill DL, Fitts RH. Isometric force and maximal shortening velocity of single muscle fibers from elite master runners. Am J Physiol 271: C666–C675, 1996.
Wilmarth MA, Herekar R. Lifting ability and leg strength. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 14: 24–30, 1991.
Wilmore JH. Alterations in strength, body composition and anthropometric measurements consequent to a 10-week weight training program. Med Sci Sports 6: 133–138, 1974.
Wilmore JH, Parr RB, Girandola RN, et al. Physiological alterations consequent to circuit weight training. Med Sci Sports 10: 79–84, 1978.
Winters JM, Kleweno DG. Effect of initial upper-limb alignment on muscle contributions to isometric strength curves. J Biomech 26: 143–153, 1993.
Wong SL. Grip strength reference values for Canadians aged 6 to 79: Canadian health measures survey, 2007 to 2013. Health Rep 27: 3–10, 2016.
Woods RA, US Bureau of Labor Statistics. Sports and Exercise. Washington, DC, 2017. pp. 9-10.
Wu R, Delahunt E, Ditroilo M, Lowery M, De Vito G. Effects of age and sex on neuromuscular-mechanical determinants of muscle strength. Age 38: 57, 2016.
Wüst RC, Morse CI, de Haan A, Jones DA, Degens H. Sex differences in contractile properties and fatigue resistance of human skeletal muscle. Exp Physiol 93: 843–850, 2008.
Xiao ZM, Lei L, Dempsey PG, Lu B, Liang Y. Isometric muscle strength and anthropometric characteristics of a Chinese sample. Int J Ind Ergon 35: 674–679, 2005.
Yasuda N, Glover EI, Phillips SM, Isfort RJ, Tarnopolsky MA. Sex-based differences in skeletal muscle function and morphology with short-term limb immobilization. J Appl Physiol 99: 1085–1092, 2005.
Yoon T, Doyel R, Widule C, Hunter SK. Sex differences with aging in the fatigability of dynamic contractions. Exp Gerontol 70: 1–10, 2015.
Yoon T, Schlinder Delap B, Griffith EE, Hunter SK. Mechanisms of fatigue differ after low- and high-force fatiguing contractions in men and women. Muscle Nerve 36: 515–524, 2007.
You S, Shin K. Relationships among exercise beliefs, physical exercise, and subjective well-being: Evidence from Korean middle-aged adults. Health Care Women Int 38: 1263–1274, 2017.
Yu F, Hedström M, Cristea A, Dalén N, Larsson L. Effects of ageing and gender on contractile properties in human skeletal muscle and single fibres. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 190: 229–241, 2007.
Yu R, Ong S, Cheung O, Leung J, Woo J. Reference values of grip strength, prevalence of low grip strength, and factors affecting grip strength values in Chinese adults. J Am Med Dir Assoc 18: 551.e9–551.e16, 2017.
*Further Information*
*Abstract: Nuzzo, JL. Narrative review of sex differences in muscle strength, endurance, activation, size, fiber type, and strength training participation rates, preferences, motivations, injuries, and neuromuscular adaptations. J Strength Cond Res 37(2): 494-536, 2023-Biological sex and its relation with exercise participation and sports performance continue to be discussed. Here, the purpose was to inform such discussions by summarizing the literature on sex differences in numerous strength training-related variables and outcomes-muscle strength and endurance, muscle mass and size, muscle fiber type, muscle twitch forces, and voluntary activation; strength training participation rates, motivations, preferences, and practices; and injuries and changes in muscle size and strength with strength training. Male subjects become notably stronger than female subjects around age 15 years. In adults, sex differences in strength are more pronounced in upper-body than lower-body muscles and in concentric than eccentric contractions. Greater male than female strength is not because of higher voluntary activation but to greater muscle mass and type II fiber areas. Men participate in strength training more frequently than women. Men are motivated more by challenge, competition, social recognition, and a desire to increase muscle size and strength. Men also have greater preference for competitive, high-intensity, and upper-body exercise. Women are motivated more by improved attractiveness, muscle "toning," and body mass management. Women have greater preference for supervised and lower-body exercise. Intrasexual competition, mate selection, and the drive for muscularity are likely fundamental causes of exercise behaviors in men and women. Men and women increase muscle size and strength after weeks of strength training, but women experience greater relative strength improvements depending on age and muscle group. Men exhibit higher strength training injury rates. No sex difference exists in strength loss and muscle soreness after muscle-damaging exercise.
(Copyright © 2022 National Strength and Conditioning Association.)*