Treffer: BBAS: A blockchain-based authentication system for e-health with multi-factor authentication, access control, and post-quantum security.
Title:
BBAS: A blockchain-based authentication system for e-health with multi-factor authentication, access control, and post-quantum security.
Authors:
Latif R; College of Computer and Information Sciences (CCIS), Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia., Yakubu BM; Department of Cyber Security, Sule Lamido University Kafin Hausa (SLUK), Kafin Hausa, Jigawa state, Nigeria. bellomyakubu.cui@gmail.com., Jamail NSM; College of Computer and Information Sciences (CCIS), Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia., Talib AM; College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia., Alomary FO; College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Source:
Scientific reports [Sci Rep] 2026 Feb 15; Vol. 16 (1). Date of Electronic Publication: 2026 Feb 15.
Publication Type:
Journal Article
Language:
English
Journal Info:
Publisher: Nature Publishing Group Country of Publication: England NLM ID: 101563288 Publication Model: Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 2045-2322 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 20452322 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Sci Rep Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s):
Original Publication: London : Nature Publishing Group, copyright 2011-
MeSH Terms:
References:
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Hemdan, E. E. D., Sayed, A. & Innovations, F. Smart and Secure Healthcare with Digital Twins: A Deep Dive into Blockchain, Federated Learning, and Algorithms18 (7), p. 401 https://doi.org/10.3390/a18070401 (2025).
Zamil, M. G. H. I. A. L. & Samarah, S. M. Privacy preserving activity recognition framework for high performance smart systems, Clust. Comput.,28 (6), 10.1007/s10586-025-05112-7.b Model for E-Health Users, Information (Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/info16030219 (2025).
Model for E-Health Users. Information (Switzerland) 16 (3) https://doi.org/10.3390/info16030219 (2025).
Pokharel, B. P., Kshetri, N., Sharma, S. R. & Paudel, S. BlockHealthSecure: integrating blockchain and cybersecurity in Post-Pandemic healthcare systems. Inform. (Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/info16020133 (2025). (PMID: 10.3390/info16020133)
Rani, D., Kumar, R. & Chauhan, N. A secure framework for IoT -based healthcare using blockchain and IPFS. Secur. Priv. https://doi.org/10.1002/spy2.348 (2024). (PMID: 10.1002/spy2.348)
Abutaleb, R. A., Alqahtany, S. S. & Syed, T. A. Integrity and Privacy-Aware, Patient-Centric health record access control framework using a blockchain. Appl. Sci. (Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/app13021028 (2023). (PMID: 10.3390/app13021028)
Kumar, P. et al. A blockchain-orchestrated deep learning approach for secure data transmission in IoT-enabled healthcare system. J. Parallel Distrib. Comput. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpdc.2022.10.002 (2023). (PMID: 10.1016/j.jpdc.2022.10.002)
Nowrozy, R., Security, A. & privacy compliant data sharing solution for healthcare data ecosystems and, Victoria University. (accessed 24 June 2025); https://vuir.vu.edu.au/id/eprint/48047 (2024).
Maranco, M., Logeshwari, R., Sivakumar, M. & Manikandan, V. Improvised multi-factor authentication for end-user security in cyber physical system. Int. J. Intell. Syst. Applic. Eng. 12 15s, (2024).
Saha, S., Nova, S. N. & Iqbal, M. I. Healthcare professionals credential verification model using Blockchain-Based Self-sovereign identity. Lecture Notes Networks Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9483-8_32 (2023). (PMID: 10.1007/978-981-19-9483-8_32)
Ul Haq, M. et al. A comprehensive review of face detection/recognition algorithms and competitive datasets to optimize machine vision. https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2025.063341 (Tech Science Press, 2025).
Nasr, M. A. et al. A comprehensive survey of audio forgery detection: challenges and novel trends. J. Electr. Syst. Inform. Technol. 12 (1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43067-025-00225-w (2025). (PMID: 10.1186/s43067-025-00225-w)
Gharavi, H., Granjal, J. & Monteiro, E. Post-Quantum blockchain security for the internet of things: survey and research directions. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2024.3355222 (2024). (PMID: 10.1109/COMST.2024.3355222)
Singh, M. K., Kumar Pippal, S. & Sharma, V. A Blockchain-IPFS framework for Secure, Scalable, and interoperable healthcare data management. SN Comput. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-025-03936-z (2025). (PMID: 10.1007/s42979-025-03936-z)
Dewangan, N. K. & Chandrakar, P. TreatChain: A patient-centric treatment cycle blockchain using proof-of-upload consensus. Peer Peer Netw. Appl. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12083-025-01984-z (2025). (PMID: 10.1007/s12083-025-01984-z)
Karthikeyan, V., Kirubakaran, G., Gopalakrishnan, K. & Sridhar Raj, S. Creative strategies to protect patients’ health records and confidentiality using blockchain technology. In Blockchain-Enabled Solutions for the Pharmaceutical Industry. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394287970.ch14 (Wiley, 2024).
Haritha, T. & Anitha, A. Multi-Level security in healthcare by integrating Lattice-Based access control and Blockchain- based smart contracts system. IEEE Access. 11, 114322–114340. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3324740 (2023). (PMID: 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3324740)
Pujari, C. et al. Identity resilience in the digital health ecosystem: A key recovery-enabled framework. Comput. Biol. Med. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.107702 (2023). (PMID: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.10770237976822)
Miao, J., Wang, Z., Wu, Z., Ning, X. & Tiwari, P. A blockchain-enabled privacy-preserving authentication management protocol for internet of medical things. Expert Syst. Appl. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2023.121329 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.eswa.2023.121329)
Kormiltsyn, A., Iqbal, M., Dwivedi, V., Norta, A. & Matulevicius, R. Ontology of Blockchain-based Multi-Factor challenge set Self-Sovereign identity authentication. SSRN https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5274964 (2025). (PMID: 10.2139/ssrn.5274964)
Mansoor, K. et al. PQCAIE: Post quantum cryptographic authentication scheme for IoT-based e-health systems. Internet Things (Netherlands) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2024.101228 (2024).
Abid, A., Cheikhrouhou, S., Kallel, S., Tari, Z. & Jmaiel, M. A smart contract-based access control framework for smart healthcare systems. Comput. J. https://doi.org/10.1093/comjnl/bxac183 (2024). (PMID: 10.1093/comjnl/bxac183)
Azeri, N., Hioual, O. & Hioual, O. A distributed intelligence framework for enhancing resilience and data privacy in dynamic cyber-physical systems. Cluster Comput. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-024-04349-y (2024). (PMID: 10.1007/s10586-024-04349-y)
Padma, A. & Ramaiah, M. Blockchain based an efficient and secure privacy preserved framework for smart cities. IEEE Access. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3364078 (2024). (PMID: 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3364078)
Padma, A. & Ramaiah, M. GLSBIoT: GWO-based enhancement for lightweight scalable blockchain for IoT with trust based consensus. Future Generation Comput. Syst. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2024.05.008 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.future.2024.05.008)
Padma, A. & Ramaiah, M. Lightweight privacy preservation blockchain framework for healthcare applications using GM-SSO. Results Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103882 (2025). (PMID: 10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103882)
Padma, A., Ramaiah, M. & Ravi, V. A comprehensive review of lightweight blockchain practices for smart cities: a security and efficacy assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40860-025-00254-2 (2025).
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. Biometric and smart contract enabled secure data sharing in drone-assisted battlefield systems. Comput. Electr. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.2025.110407 (2025). (PMID: 10.1016/j.compeleceng.2025.110407)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. A smart contract-based robotic surgery authentication system for healthcare using 6G-Tactile internet. Comput. Netw. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2023.110133 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.comnet.2023.110133)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. Blockchain-enabled authentication framework for maritime transportation system empowered by 6G-IoT. Comput. Netw. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110353 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110353)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. A smart contract-based 6G-enabled authentication scheme for Securing internet of nano medical things network. Ad Hoc Netw. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adhoc.2024.103606 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.adhoc.2024.103606)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. A consortium blockchain-edge enabled authentication scheme for underwater acoustic network (UAN). Internet Things (The Netherlands). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2024.101426 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.iot.2024.101426)
Prajapat, S., Kumar, N., Das, A. K., Kumar, P. & Ali, R. Quantum-safe blockchain-assisted data encryption protocol for internet of things networks. Cluster Comput. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-024-04688-w (2025). (PMID: 10.1007/s10586-024-04688-w)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. Smart-FIoT: A smart contract based efficient authentication framework for forensics IoT. Cluster Comput. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-025-05649-7 (2025). (PMID: 10.1007/s10586-025-05649-7)
Al-Zubaidie, M. & Jebbar, W. A. Blockchain-Powered dynamic segmentation in personal health record. Mesopotamian J. Cybersecur. 5 (3), 953–976. https://doi.org/10.58496/MJCS/2025/054 (2025). (PMID: 10.58496/MJCS/2025/054)
Tregi, T. G. & Al-Zubaidie, M. Enhancing traffic data security in smart cities using optimized Quantum-Based digital signatures and Privacy-Preserving techniques. Mesopotamian J. Cybersecur. 5 (1), 256–272. https://doi.org/10.58496/MJCS/2025/017 (2025). (PMID: 10.58496/MJCS/2025/017)
Razzaq, R. H., Al-Zubaidie, M. & Atiyah, R. G. Intermediary decentralized computing and private blockchain mechanisms for privacy preservation in the internet of medical things. Mesopotamian J. Cybersecur. 4 (3), 152–165. https://doi.org/10.58496/MJCS/2024/020 (2024). (PMID: 10.58496/MJCS/2024/020)
Jebbar, W. A. & Al-Zubaidie, M. Transaction-Based blockchain systems security improvement employing Micro-Segmentation controlled by smart contracts and detection of saddle goatfish. SN Comput. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-024-03239-9 (2024). (PMID: 10.1007/s42979-024-03239-9)
Luu, L., Chu, D. H., Olickel, H., Saxena, P. & Hobor, A. Mak. Smart Contracts Smarter. https://doi.org/10.1145/2976749.2978309 . (2016). (PMID: 10.1145/2976749.2978309)
Dóka, J. et al. Enablers of low-latency immersive interaction in future remote-rendered mixed reality applications. MMSys - Proceedings of the 16th ACM Multimedia Systems Conference Association for Computing Machinery, Inc pp. 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1145/3712676.3714448 (2025).
Albana’a, R. M. & Alsohybe, N. T. Optimizing latency for augmented reality applications via mobile edge computing. In 1st International Conference on Emerging Technologies for Dependable Internet of Things, ICETI 2024 , Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., https://doi.org/10.1109/ICETI63946.2024.10777191 (2024).
Tanveer, M., Chelloug, S. A., Alabdulhafith, M. & El-Latif, A. A. A. Lightweight authentication protocol for connected medical IoT through privacy-preserving access. Egypt. Inf. J. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eij.2024.100474 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.eij.2024.100474)
Hossam Eldein Mohamed, F. A. & El-Shafai, W. Cancelable biometric authentication system based on hyperchaotic technique and fibonacci Q-Matrix. Multimed Tools Appl. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-023-17855-9 (2024). (PMID: 10.1007/s11042-023-17855-9)
Assaqty, M. I. S. et al. SPUFChain: permissioned blockchain lightweight authentication scheme for supply chain management using PUF of IoT. IEEE Access. 13, 88662–88682. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3566478 (2025). (PMID: 10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3566478)
Farouk, G. & Alsamara, T. Legal view on blockchain technologies in healthcare: A European States case study. Int. J. Sociotechnology Knowl. Dev. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJSKD.333154 (2023). (PMID: 10.4018/IJSKD.333154)
Hemdan, E. E. D., Sayed, A. & Innovations, F. Smart and Secure Healthcare with Digital Twins: A Deep Dive into Blockchain, Federated Learning, and Algorithms18 (7), p. 401 https://doi.org/10.3390/a18070401 (2025).
Zamil, M. G. H. I. A. L. & Samarah, S. M. Privacy preserving activity recognition framework for high performance smart systems, Clust. Comput.,28 (6), 10.1007/s10586-025-05112-7.b Model for E-Health Users, Information (Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/info16030219 (2025).
Model for E-Health Users. Information (Switzerland) 16 (3) https://doi.org/10.3390/info16030219 (2025).
Pokharel, B. P., Kshetri, N., Sharma, S. R. & Paudel, S. BlockHealthSecure: integrating blockchain and cybersecurity in Post-Pandemic healthcare systems. Inform. (Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/info16020133 (2025). (PMID: 10.3390/info16020133)
Rani, D., Kumar, R. & Chauhan, N. A secure framework for IoT -based healthcare using blockchain and IPFS. Secur. Priv. https://doi.org/10.1002/spy2.348 (2024). (PMID: 10.1002/spy2.348)
Abutaleb, R. A., Alqahtany, S. S. & Syed, T. A. Integrity and Privacy-Aware, Patient-Centric health record access control framework using a blockchain. Appl. Sci. (Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/app13021028 (2023). (PMID: 10.3390/app13021028)
Kumar, P. et al. A blockchain-orchestrated deep learning approach for secure data transmission in IoT-enabled healthcare system. J. Parallel Distrib. Comput. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpdc.2022.10.002 (2023). (PMID: 10.1016/j.jpdc.2022.10.002)
Nowrozy, R., Security, A. & privacy compliant data sharing solution for healthcare data ecosystems and, Victoria University. (accessed 24 June 2025); https://vuir.vu.edu.au/id/eprint/48047 (2024).
Maranco, M., Logeshwari, R., Sivakumar, M. & Manikandan, V. Improvised multi-factor authentication for end-user security in cyber physical system. Int. J. Intell. Syst. Applic. Eng. 12 15s, (2024).
Saha, S., Nova, S. N. & Iqbal, M. I. Healthcare professionals credential verification model using Blockchain-Based Self-sovereign identity. Lecture Notes Networks Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9483-8_32 (2023). (PMID: 10.1007/978-981-19-9483-8_32)
Ul Haq, M. et al. A comprehensive review of face detection/recognition algorithms and competitive datasets to optimize machine vision. https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2025.063341 (Tech Science Press, 2025).
Nasr, M. A. et al. A comprehensive survey of audio forgery detection: challenges and novel trends. J. Electr. Syst. Inform. Technol. 12 (1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43067-025-00225-w (2025). (PMID: 10.1186/s43067-025-00225-w)
Gharavi, H., Granjal, J. & Monteiro, E. Post-Quantum blockchain security for the internet of things: survey and research directions. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2024.3355222 (2024). (PMID: 10.1109/COMST.2024.3355222)
Singh, M. K., Kumar Pippal, S. & Sharma, V. A Blockchain-IPFS framework for Secure, Scalable, and interoperable healthcare data management. SN Comput. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-025-03936-z (2025). (PMID: 10.1007/s42979-025-03936-z)
Dewangan, N. K. & Chandrakar, P. TreatChain: A patient-centric treatment cycle blockchain using proof-of-upload consensus. Peer Peer Netw. Appl. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12083-025-01984-z (2025). (PMID: 10.1007/s12083-025-01984-z)
Karthikeyan, V., Kirubakaran, G., Gopalakrishnan, K. & Sridhar Raj, S. Creative strategies to protect patients’ health records and confidentiality using blockchain technology. In Blockchain-Enabled Solutions for the Pharmaceutical Industry. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394287970.ch14 (Wiley, 2024).
Haritha, T. & Anitha, A. Multi-Level security in healthcare by integrating Lattice-Based access control and Blockchain- based smart contracts system. IEEE Access. 11, 114322–114340. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3324740 (2023). (PMID: 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3324740)
Pujari, C. et al. Identity resilience in the digital health ecosystem: A key recovery-enabled framework. Comput. Biol. Med. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.107702 (2023). (PMID: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.10770237976822)
Miao, J., Wang, Z., Wu, Z., Ning, X. & Tiwari, P. A blockchain-enabled privacy-preserving authentication management protocol for internet of medical things. Expert Syst. Appl. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2023.121329 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.eswa.2023.121329)
Kormiltsyn, A., Iqbal, M., Dwivedi, V., Norta, A. & Matulevicius, R. Ontology of Blockchain-based Multi-Factor challenge set Self-Sovereign identity authentication. SSRN https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5274964 (2025). (PMID: 10.2139/ssrn.5274964)
Mansoor, K. et al. PQCAIE: Post quantum cryptographic authentication scheme for IoT-based e-health systems. Internet Things (Netherlands) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2024.101228 (2024).
Abid, A., Cheikhrouhou, S., Kallel, S., Tari, Z. & Jmaiel, M. A smart contract-based access control framework for smart healthcare systems. Comput. J. https://doi.org/10.1093/comjnl/bxac183 (2024). (PMID: 10.1093/comjnl/bxac183)
Azeri, N., Hioual, O. & Hioual, O. A distributed intelligence framework for enhancing resilience and data privacy in dynamic cyber-physical systems. Cluster Comput. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-024-04349-y (2024). (PMID: 10.1007/s10586-024-04349-y)
Padma, A. & Ramaiah, M. Blockchain based an efficient and secure privacy preserved framework for smart cities. IEEE Access. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3364078 (2024). (PMID: 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3364078)
Padma, A. & Ramaiah, M. GLSBIoT: GWO-based enhancement for lightweight scalable blockchain for IoT with trust based consensus. Future Generation Comput. Syst. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2024.05.008 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.future.2024.05.008)
Padma, A. & Ramaiah, M. Lightweight privacy preservation blockchain framework for healthcare applications using GM-SSO. Results Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103882 (2025). (PMID: 10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103882)
Padma, A., Ramaiah, M. & Ravi, V. A comprehensive review of lightweight blockchain practices for smart cities: a security and efficacy assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40860-025-00254-2 (2025).
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. Biometric and smart contract enabled secure data sharing in drone-assisted battlefield systems. Comput. Electr. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.2025.110407 (2025). (PMID: 10.1016/j.compeleceng.2025.110407)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. A smart contract-based robotic surgery authentication system for healthcare using 6G-Tactile internet. Comput. Netw. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2023.110133 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.comnet.2023.110133)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. Blockchain-enabled authentication framework for maritime transportation system empowered by 6G-IoT. Comput. Netw. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110353 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110353)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. A smart contract-based 6G-enabled authentication scheme for Securing internet of nano medical things network. Ad Hoc Netw. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adhoc.2024.103606 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.adhoc.2024.103606)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. A consortium blockchain-edge enabled authentication scheme for underwater acoustic network (UAN). Internet Things (The Netherlands). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2024.101426 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.iot.2024.101426)
Prajapat, S., Kumar, N., Das, A. K., Kumar, P. & Ali, R. Quantum-safe blockchain-assisted data encryption protocol for internet of things networks. Cluster Comput. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-024-04688-w (2025). (PMID: 10.1007/s10586-024-04688-w)
Kumar, N. & Ali, R. Smart-FIoT: A smart contract based efficient authentication framework for forensics IoT. Cluster Comput. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-025-05649-7 (2025). (PMID: 10.1007/s10586-025-05649-7)
Al-Zubaidie, M. & Jebbar, W. A. Blockchain-Powered dynamic segmentation in personal health record. Mesopotamian J. Cybersecur. 5 (3), 953–976. https://doi.org/10.58496/MJCS/2025/054 (2025). (PMID: 10.58496/MJCS/2025/054)
Tregi, T. G. & Al-Zubaidie, M. Enhancing traffic data security in smart cities using optimized Quantum-Based digital signatures and Privacy-Preserving techniques. Mesopotamian J. Cybersecur. 5 (1), 256–272. https://doi.org/10.58496/MJCS/2025/017 (2025). (PMID: 10.58496/MJCS/2025/017)
Razzaq, R. H., Al-Zubaidie, M. & Atiyah, R. G. Intermediary decentralized computing and private blockchain mechanisms for privacy preservation in the internet of medical things. Mesopotamian J. Cybersecur. 4 (3), 152–165. https://doi.org/10.58496/MJCS/2024/020 (2024). (PMID: 10.58496/MJCS/2024/020)
Jebbar, W. A. & Al-Zubaidie, M. Transaction-Based blockchain systems security improvement employing Micro-Segmentation controlled by smart contracts and detection of saddle goatfish. SN Comput. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-024-03239-9 (2024). (PMID: 10.1007/s42979-024-03239-9)
Luu, L., Chu, D. H., Olickel, H., Saxena, P. & Hobor, A. Mak. Smart Contracts Smarter. https://doi.org/10.1145/2976749.2978309 . (2016). (PMID: 10.1145/2976749.2978309)
Dóka, J. et al. Enablers of low-latency immersive interaction in future remote-rendered mixed reality applications. MMSys - Proceedings of the 16th ACM Multimedia Systems Conference Association for Computing Machinery, Inc pp. 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1145/3712676.3714448 (2025).
Albana’a, R. M. & Alsohybe, N. T. Optimizing latency for augmented reality applications via mobile edge computing. In 1st International Conference on Emerging Technologies for Dependable Internet of Things, ICETI 2024 , Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., https://doi.org/10.1109/ICETI63946.2024.10777191 (2024).
Tanveer, M., Chelloug, S. A., Alabdulhafith, M. & El-Latif, A. A. A. Lightweight authentication protocol for connected medical IoT through privacy-preserving access. Egypt. Inf. J. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eij.2024.100474 (2024). (PMID: 10.1016/j.eij.2024.100474)
Hossam Eldein Mohamed, F. A. & El-Shafai, W. Cancelable biometric authentication system based on hyperchaotic technique and fibonacci Q-Matrix. Multimed Tools Appl. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-023-17855-9 (2024). (PMID: 10.1007/s11042-023-17855-9)
Assaqty, M. I. S. et al. SPUFChain: permissioned blockchain lightweight authentication scheme for supply chain management using PUF of IoT. IEEE Access. 13, 88662–88682. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3566478 (2025). (PMID: 10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3566478)
Farouk, G. & Alsamara, T. Legal view on blockchain technologies in healthcare: A European States case study. Int. J. Sociotechnology Knowl. Dev. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJSKD.333154 (2023). (PMID: 10.4018/IJSKD.333154)
Grant Information:
IMSIU-DDRSP2603 Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU)
Contributed Indexing:
Keywords: Biometric verification; Blockchain authentication; Decentralized access control; E-health security; IPFS; Multi-factor authentication; Post-quantum cryptography; Smart contract
Entry Date(s):
Date Created: 20260215 Date Completed: 20260318 Latest Revision: 20260318
Update Code:
20260318
DOI:
10.1038/s41598-026-39415-5
PMID:
41692842
Database:
MEDLINE
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The rapid digitisation of healthcare services presents challenges in guaranteeing safe, scalable, and privacy-preserving access to sensitive medical information. This article presents BBAS, a blockchain-based authentication system for e-Health. BBAS incorporates a multi-factor authentication (MFA) framework that includes password hashing, one-time passwords (OTP), and biometric verification, with a hybrid access control model that combines role-based access control (RBAC) and attribute-based access control (ABAC). To guarantee enduring security, BBAS utilises post-quantum digital signatures (CRYSTALS-Dilithium) and exploits the InterPlanetary file system (IPFS) for off-chain data storage, assuring tamper-resistance and scalability. We implemented the system using solidity smart contracts on a permissioned Ethereum network and assessed via 500 authentication iterations. Results show BBAS outperforms benchmark models across all critical metrics: authentication success rate (ASR: 98.6%), latency (0.05 s), throughput (19,000 req/s), gas cost (35,000 gas/req), block confirmation time (10 s), and storage overhead (0.03 KB/record). Biometric error rates-false acceptance rate (FAR: 0.5%), false rejection rate (FRR: 1.2%), and equal error rate (EER: 0.85%)-are markedly decreased, therefore improving both security and usability. This research validates BBAS as a reliable, scalable, and quantum-resistant authentication framework for contemporary e-Health systems.
(© 2026. The Author(s).)
Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.