*Result*: Evaluating instructional formats and performance metrics in manual assembly task.
Original Publication: Reading, MA : Andover Medical Publishers, c1990-
*Further Information*
*BackgroundAssembly is crucial in manufacturing processes, particularly with the increasing trend of customer assembly enabled by e-commerce platforms. Comprehending the importance of explicit assembly instructions is essential for improving efficiency in manual assembly activities.ObjectiveThis study aims to assess the effect of various assembly instruction formats, particularly evaluating the role of color and text, on established performance metrics in manual assembly activities.MethodsMultiple assembly instruction formats, encompassing both colorful and non-colored images with and without textual guidance, were created and utilized in manual assembly activities. A rigorous experimental strategy was implemented, including 40 participants to evaluate assembly performance measures.ResultsThe study results revealed that the addition of color and text instruction has a slight effect on the performance of the assembly, but this effect isn't significant at this level of assembly complexity.ConclusionImplementing specific assembly instruction formats can enhance performance and reduce costs, highlighting the significance of customized, explicit instructions for improved work efficiency.*
*Declaration of conflicting interestsThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.*
AN0191330534;3rc15jan.26;2026Feb05.05:43;v2.2.500
Evaluating instructional formats and performance metrics in manual assembly task
Background: Assembly is crucial in manufacturing processes, particularly with the increasing trend of customer assembly enabled by e-commerce platforms. Comprehending the importance of explicit assembly instructions is essential for improving efficiency in manual assembly activities. Objective: This study aims to assess the effect of various assembly instruction formats, particularly evaluating the role of color and text, on established performance metrics in manual assembly activities. Methods: Multiple assembly instruction formats, encompassing both colorful and non-colored images with and without textual guidance, were created and utilized in manual assembly activities. A rigorous experimental strategy was implemented, including 40 participants to evaluate assembly performance measures. Results: The study results revealed that the addition of color and text instruction has a slight effect on the performance of the assembly, but this effect isn't significant at this level of assembly complexity. Conclusion: Implementing specific assembly instruction formats can enhance performance and reduce costs, highlighting the significance of customized, explicit instructions for improved work efficiency.
Keywords: task performance and analysis; motor skills; industrial manufacturing; ergonomics; mental workload; visual perception
Introduction and literature review
In manufacturing, the assembly step is critical to manufacturing the final product that fulfills the required functions and meets the quality requirements. Manual assembly is the process in which human employ their inherent skill, talent, judgment, as well as the given work instructions to assemble the completed product or a unit of a product from pre-existing elements (parts or components).[1][2][3]–[4] Assembly instructions are often necessary for industrial or home assembly tasks in order to reduce assembly errors and improve operator or customer performance during the assembly process. Paper-based instructions are regarded as one of the most significant and prevalent media for providing assembly guidance. The design of these instructions varies considerably: some are in color, while others are grayscale; some depend exclusively on images, and others integrate visuals with textual explanations. The duration and expense associated with the preparation of each instructional kind vary significantly. Moreover, it is uncertain if the combination of color and text enhances instructional efficacy or user performance. The work instruction (content and presentation) must be clear and involve all required information for the assembly task.[1][2][3][4]–[5] Work instructions could be supplied in a variety of formats, including paper, video, animation, virtual reality, and 3D printed models.[6][7]–[8] Contemporary instructional materials commonly comprise either text accompanied by illustrations or solely visual diagrams, typically presented in printed paper format. In this study, various types of paper-based work instructions are evaluated. Several papers have been published on manual assembly operations instructions and training for example, the effect of factors on information presentation requirements in manual assembly instructions was investigated. The skill, experience, physical and mental state of the worker, and assembly complexity were included in the study, which was a highly significant contribution to this paper. The results suggest that the requirements cannot be met by a particular solution, however, these factors should be considered. The instructions type should be changed according to the assembly complexity and experience of the worker. BalaSeshan, P., and K. Janardhan Reddy, 2020, developed effective video instructions for training and proposed a design criterion for instructional videos.[9] Saupp, Allison, and Bilge Mutlu 2014, proposed and evaluated a research-based framework for designing and creating an instructional video for product assembly training.[10] For evaluation of the assembly training instructions, Blattgerste, Jonas, et al. 2017, 2014, tested AR-based field assistance against traditional visual instructions via smartphones, Microsoft HoloLens, and Epson Moverio BT-200 smart glasses, as well as paper-based instructions. Participants solved the task fastest using paper instructions but made fewer mistakes with AR (Augmented Reality) support on Microsoft HoloLens smart glasses than with other systems.[11] Agrawala, Maneesh, et al., 2003, outlined a set of design principles for creating effective assembly instructions that are easy to understand and follow and compared the conventional and augmented reality instructions for manual assembly tasks.[12] Yang et al. 2020, provided empirical evidence to compare task completion time, number of errors, workload index, and system usability between AR and traditional paper-based work instructions. The results showed that AR instructions outperformed paper-based instructions in terms of the number of errors and ease of use. However, no statistically significant differences were found between paper and AR instructions in terms of time to complete the task and overall workload.[13]
Kolla et al. 2021, compared mobile augmented reality instructions to paper-based instructions. The findings showed that compared to individuals who utilized paper instructions, those who used mobile augmented reality instructions made fewer mistakes. Moreover, task efficiency, cognitive load, and motivation are not hampered by mobile augmented reality instructions.[14] Adams et al. 2001, conducted an experiment with a real task on reality training, in which the force feedback benefits were studied. Three groups are trained, one group on Virtual simulation with feedback the second without, and the third group trained without virtual training. The results showed that the group who trained with force feedback had better completion times than those who trained without, and both groups were significantly better than the group without training.[15] Recent research has underscored the escalating significance of visual and textual indicators in assembly jobs, especially amid rising automation and tailored user experiences. These results underscore the necessity for explicit and efficient instructions to mitigate cognitive strain and enhance task performance.
The research underscores the essential importance of explicit and informative assembly instructions in manual assembly procedures. Numerous researchers have investigated the efficacy of diverse instructional formats, including video instructions,[16] augmented reality-based instructions,[17],[18] and mobile augmented reality instructions, in enhancing assembly performance and minimizing errors. Research indicates that variables such as the intricacy of the assembly task, the experience of the worker, and the format of the instructions significantly influence the efficacy of the instructions. Based on this existing knowledge, this study aims to assess the effect of various assembly instruction formats, particularly evaluating the role of color and text, on established performance metrics in simple manual assembly activities.
The research hypotheses of this study are organized as follows:
H1: Incorporating color into assembly instructions will significantly reduce task completion time and error rates compared to monochromatic instructions.
H2: Adding descriptive text to assembly instructions will enhance task accuracy and decrease frustration levels compared to instructions lacking text.
H3: The combined use of color and text in assembly instructions will lead to improved overall task performance compared to using either color or text alone.
Materials and methods
This paper aims to evaluate the effect of the assembly instructions' addition color on the performance of the assembly and select the most appropriate methods for assembly guidelines in manual assembly tasks. To achieve the study objective, the systematic methodology is proposed as shown in Figure 1. The methodology started with selecting assembly task to develop the scenarios and conduct the experiments and the parts of the assembly task were identified and designed using SolidWorks software. Four instruction modes were developed after that and used to conduct the experiments by 40 participants randomly. The developed instructions modes involved Colored pictures, black-white pictures (Non-Colored pictures), Colored pictures with text instructions, and black-white pictures without text instructions. Serval performance measures are evaluated, completion time, number of frustration points, number of errors, change in the heart rate, and NASA TLXScore, and the most efficient method based on the selected performance measures.
Graph: Figure 1. The methodology of evaluation assembly instructions modes.
Assembly task
Adjustable bearing assembly is selected as a assembly task in this investigation. It is a form of bearing system that allows for the changing of certain parameters to accommodate specific requirements. Figure 2 illustrates the selected assembly (Adjustable bearing) in assembled and exploded mode.
Graph: Figure 2. Adjustable bearing assembly.
These assemblies typically include a bearing unit and other components that can be customized to achieve desired properties or meet specific operational needs. Table 1 lists the parts and the quantities of the parts of the used Adjustable bearing assembly.
Table 1. Adjustable bearing assembly parts.
Graph
The adjustable design of these bearing assemblies allows for flexibility in a variety of areas, including alignment, axial play, preload, and clearance. By making exact modifications to these characteristics, the bearing's performance can be maximized for various operating situations, load requirements, and alignment tolerances. Adjustable bearing assemblies are widely utilized in industries such as manufacturing, automotive, aerospace, and machinery, where precise control of bearing properties is required. They provide benefits such as increased reliability, better load distribution, lower vibration, and longer service life.
The assembly task involved constructing an adjustable bearing assembly, which required participants to place sequentially and secure parts (e.g., base, support, bearing sleeve, housing, cap, pins, screws, washers, and nuts) as per the instructions. The task was divided into 10 steps, each requiring precise alignment and fastening. The complexity was classified as low-to-moderate, involving no specialized tools but requiring manual dexterity and attention to detail. Participants' skills required for the assembly task are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Participants' skills nedded.
Graph
Assembly instructions modes
To investigate the influence of design assembly instruction parameters (colored pictures and text addition) on manual assembly performance, four assembly instruction modes are developed. The identical pictures and assembly methods are offered in all designs, with the exception that some designs have colored photos and others do not. The instructional materials have been designed with high-resolution images (300 dpi) and uniform color contrast to guarantee clarity. The colored pictures followed a standard color palette for differentiation, whereas the monochromatic images utilized grayscale. Additionally, some designs include text instructions, while others do not as presented in Tables 3.
Table 3. Assembly instructions.
Graph
All assembly instruction modes are printed on paper, and each mode is provided with the assembly parts that will be used during the assembly process, as specified in the experiment design.
Participants
Forty male university students from Al-Yamamah University (YU) with a mean age of 21.8 ± 2.452 years were randomly selected for this study. Before the study, ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Board at KSU (ethical code # E-24-8622). Two out of forty of the participants were left-handed and the other was right-handed (self-reported) and none of them had any health problems. To ensure consistency and eliminate bias, participants were randomly selected from a group of male university students aged 18–25 who had no prior experience in assembly tasks. The following were the inclusion criteria for this study: (1) Participants who do not have any vision impairments. (2) Participants who do not experience tremors in the limbs. The results are applicable to individuals with minimal expertise in manual assembly tasks as a consequence of these criteria.
Experiment procedures
To avoid any bias in the results the forty experiments are planned to conduct randomly. Minitab software is used to generate the experiment plan randomly and involves all combinations with ten repetitions for each combination. The experimental plan for this study is presented in Table 4.
Table 4. The experiment plan.
Graph
To ensure that all assembly experiments were conducted under consistent and controlled conditions, the assembly timing is fixed on the morning at the same room that was semi-isolated from external noise, with sufficient lighting and a stable room temperature.
The experiments are carried out according to the preceding plan and supervised by two moderators. The experiment began by welcoming the selected participant and asking him to complete the demographics questionnaire, which included questions about the individual's gender, age, education, vision (have visual impairments or not), preferred hand (left or right), other health problems, and so on. The participant's heart rate is then measured using a smartwatch (Pre-task heart rate). Following that, the moderators expressed the study's objective to the participants. The selected participant is then randomly assigned to one of four prepared instructions (colored pictures, colored pictures with text instructions, non-colored pictures, and non-colored pictures with text instructions). The participant followed the instructions to complete the assembly work, and the moderators monitored the process throughout. After completing the task, the participant's heart rate is measured again (Post-task heart rate) to assess how much it has changed. The participant was then asked to complete the NASA TLX questionnaire. Finally, all instruction types are shown to the participant, who responds by asking which instruction style will make the assembly process. Figure 3 displays the experimental protocols employed in this investigation. Sample images of participants during the experiments are in Figure 4.
Graph: Figure 3. Experiment procedures.
Graph: Figure 4. Sample images of participants during the experiments.
Performance measures
To compare between the instructions designs serval objective and subjective performance measures are used.
Completion time: The overall time spent on assembly tasks and it's measured by the smartwatch.
Number of frustration points (type 1): The number of times a participant became frustrated but proceeded without seeking assistance from the moderators.
Frustration points were identified as discernible indicators of confusion or indecision, including extended pauses or verbal articulations of struggle.
Number of frustration points (type 2): The number of times a participant became frustrated and requested assistance from the moderators.
Number of errors: The number of incorrect assemblies, which could be improper part orientation, incorrect part position, or incomplete assembly, is calculated when the assembly task is completed and the moderators have evaluated the assembled product.
Two moderators evaluated these indicators(Frustration points and errors) independently, demonstrating strong inter-rater reliability.
Heart rate change: Heart rate can rise during an assembly process that requires manual dexterity and concentration due to variables such as increased physical exertion, mental focus, or stress. Heart rate is frequently used to determine the body's level of physiological arousal or stress. In this study, the heart rate is measured before the assembly task (Pre-task heart rate) and after the assembly task (Post-task heart rate) and then the change is calculated as the difference. The Heart rate is measured by a smartwatch.
The subjective measure
NASA TLX Score: The NASA TLX (Task Load Index) is a commonly used tool developed by NASA for measuring perceived workload in various tasks. It assesses workload across several aspects, including mental, physical, and temporal demands, as well as performance, effort, and frustration levels. Participants assess each dimension on a scale of 0 to 100, and the results are averaged to generate an overall workload score. The NASA TLX scores were computed utilizing the unweighted method. The NASA TLX score provides a quantitative measure of subjective workload that may be used to compare tasks, evaluate interventions, and assess workload in a variety of settings. In this study, the NASA TLX Score is evaluated using paper paper-based questionnaire in which the participant is asked to fill out the questionnaire after completing the assembly task.
Data analysis
The collected data were analyzed using IBM SPSS version 23.0 (IBM). A two-way repeated measures design with two independent variables was used. This approach allowed us to evaluate the effects of two independent variables—color and text—while controlling for participant variability. The least significant difference method was used for pairwise comparisons of the main effects to identify significantly different levels of the main variables. The Shapiro–Wilk test was implemented to test data normality. The statistical significance was set at a confidence level of 95%"
Results analysis and discussion
Completion time
The results of the experiment showed that the two main factors, the Colors of model parts and Text Instruction, and the interaction between the Colors of model parts and Text Instruction had no significant effect on Completion Time, as shown in Table 5 and Figure 5. It showed that Completion Time was higher when model parts without color were used (mean, Standard Deviation (SD)) = 3.7 (1.36) min) when compared to model parts with color (mean (SD) = 3.67(1.45) min), this is attributed to the fact that when the parts are colored, it becomes easier for the person to easily notice the location of the parts, reducing cognitive load and task ambiguity, which explains a faster completion time. The completion time is shorter when do not provide participants with written instructions (mean (SD) = 3.62(1.19) min) compared to when provided with instructions (mean (SD) = 3.75(1.60) min). This is attributed to the fact that reading the instructions leads to a longer completion time because participants waste time reading the instructions. Figure 5 shows that without text instruction, the completion time was lowest when model parts were without color, and it was highest when the participants with written instructions and the parts were colored, and this is due to their delay in reading the instructions. This may suggest that the simultaneous reliance on two types of instructional cues (visual and textual) could overwhelm participants or lead to unnecessary redundancy in the assembly process.
Graph: Figure 5. Effect of colors of model parts by text instruction on completion time.
Table 5. Summary of completion time results.
Graph
Number of frustration points (no stop)
Table 6 and Figure 6 show that the main two factors and their interaction had no significant effect on the Number of frustration points. Participants reported marginally higher levels of frustration when assembly instructions were devoid of text (mean (SD) = 1.75 (1.16)) than when text was included (mean (SD) = 1.50 (1.28)). This is consistent with the expectation that written instructions can serve as a supportive aid, providing clarity and reducing uncertainty in the interpretation of assembly steps. The absence of text instructions likely necessitated that participants rely more heavily on their cognitive abilities to deduce the assembly sequence, which likely contributed to an increase in frustration.
Graph: Figure 6. Effect of colors of model parts by text instruction on frustration points (no stop).
Table 6. Summary of frustration points (no stop) results.
Graph
In the same vein, the utilization of non-colored components led to a marginal increase in frustration points (mean (SD) = 1.75 (1.37)) when contrasted with colored components (mean (SD) = 1.50 (1.05). This trend emphasizes the significance of visual cues in assembly tasks. Color facilitates the designation of assembly positions and improves the recognizability of components, thereby reducing frustration.
Intriguingly, the interaction between these factors indicates that the lowest levels of frustration were observed when colored portions were used in conjunction with text instructions (mean (SD) = 1.20 (1.03). This combination appears to offer participants both visual and textual guidance, resulting in a more streamlined assembly experience. In contrast, the most severe levels of frustration were recorded when text instructions were paired with non-colored components (mean (SD) = 1.80 (1.48)). This could suggest that, although text alone provides some clarity, its efficacy is diminished in the absence of visual signals such as color.
Post-experiment feedback indicated that frustration points (e.g., prolonged pauses) were primarily due to ambiguity in non-colored instructions or misalignment of small parts (e.g., pins and washers), not physical discomfort. None of the participants experienced physical pain or discomfort severe enough to mention, suggesting the task was not physically harmful or overly strenuous.
Heart rate
It was observed that three main variables, the Colors of model parts, Text Instruction, and period, as well as a two-way and three-way interaction between them, had no significant effect on the heart rate of participants, as shown in Table 7. The experiment reveals that heart rate was higher when the model parts were without color (mean (SD) = 85.85 (2.83) beats/min) when compared to the model parts with color (mean (SD) = 84.57 (7.88) beats/min). This trend may be attributed to the modest increase in physiological stress that may result from the additional cognitive and visual effort necessary to differentiate between non-colored components. These results are consistent with the findings of previous research which demonstrated that the identification process is simplified by improved visual cues, thereby reducing task-related tension.[19]
Table 7. Summary of heart rate results.
Graph
Moreover, the heart rate was higher when participants were not provided with written instructions (mean (SD) = 85.52 (7.51) beats/min) compared to when they were provided with instructions (mean (SD) = 84.9 (7.13) beats/min). This implies that textual guidance may alleviate stress levels by reducing cognitive burden and uncertainty during assembly.
The interaction analysis suggests that the heart rate was at its lowest when participants utilized colored portions with text instructions, particularly before the commencement of the task (mean = 83.2 beats/min). This combination likely provided participants with a distinct and reassuring framework for task execution. In contrast, the post-task period exhibited the maximum heart rate when participants utilized non-colored components without text instructions (mean = 89.4 beats/min). This implies that the task-related stress was elevated by the absence of both visual and textual aids, particularly after prospective challenges were encountered during the assembly process.
Although the heart rate fluctuation before and following the task was not statistically significant, it is indicative of the mental and physical exertion that was required during the assembly process. In comparison to pre-task (mean (SD) = 84.4 (7.83) beats/min), participants generally reported greater heart rates post-task (mean (SD) = 86.03 (9.07) beats/min). This corresponds with the comprehension that transient physiological arousal may result from manual assembly tasks, particularly those that necessitate sustained focus and precision.
Figure 7(a) shows that for the model parts with color, the heart rate was lower when participants were provided with written instructions when compared to those without written instructions for both periods before and after. Figure 7(b) shows that for the model parts without color, the heart rate was lower when participants were not provided with written instructions when compared with any other level of other factors.
Graph: Figure 7. Effect of colors of model parts by text instruction by period on heart rate. (a) at colored parts (b) at non-colored parts.
NASA TLX
After the NASA TLX data was collected through a questionnaire designated for that purpose, the website was used to obtain the mean for NASA TLX and the standard deviation, as shown in Table 8. After statistical analysis of the data, it became clear that there were no significant differences for the factors on the NASA TLX mean.
Table 8. Summary of NASA TLX results.
Graph
In comparison to non-colored parts (mean (SD) = 32.33 (9.31), participants reported marginally higher workload scores when using colored parts (mean (SD) = 35.71 (11.49)). This unexpected trend may indicate an excessive dependence on visual cues, in which the presence of color induces a sense of redundancy or superfluous attention to detail, thereby increasing cognitive effort.
Furthermore, the incorporation of text instructions led to a higher perceived workload (mean (SD) = 37.04 (11.58)) in comparison to instructions without text (mean (SD) = 31.23 (8.69). This is in accordance with the notion that reading and interpreting text necessitates an additional cerebral effort, particularly in situations where visual guidance alone may be sufficient. This is consistent with the results of Agrawala et al. (2003), who hypothesized that excessively detailed instructions could inadvertently increase the labor of users and overwhelm them.[12]
The interaction between text and color exhibited intriguing patterns. The highest workload scores (mean = 40.16) were achieved when colored sections were combined with text instructions, which is likely attributed to the dual needs of processing both visual and textual information. In contrast, the lowest workload scores were obtained from non-colored parts that lacked text instructions (mean = 31.20). This indicates that users are less burdened by simpler instruction modes when the complexity of the task is minimal.
Number of errors
As shown in Table 9, the results reveal that color in the various parts had a slight effect on the number of errors (p = 0.173). The average number of errors was lower when the different parts were colored (0.85) than when they were not colored (0.95). This trend suggests that color can function as a visual cue, simplifying the identification and placement of components during assembly. This discovery is consistent with the findings of Blattgerste et al. (2017) and Marino et al. (2024), who previously demonstrated that the use of improved visual elements, such as color, substantially reduced the rate of errors in manual assembly tasks.[11],[20]
Table 9. Summary of number of errors results.
Graph
Also, the existence of instructions (text) had no significant impact on the frequency of errors (p = 0.278). Whether or not instructions were supplied, the overall average number of errors remained constant (0.90). In addition, the interaction between color and text was not statistically significant (p = 0.179). However, the results indicate that the combination of color and without text resulted in the highest number of errors (mean = 1.00), whereas the combination of color and text resulted in the lowest number of errors (mean = 0.70).
Overall, the findings suggest that using color in the parts may assist in reducing assembly errors, although the availability of instructions does not seem to have an important effect. The combination of color and instructions appears to be the most effective approach for reducing the number of errors during assembly.
Participants preferences
Finally, based on the participant's answers, around 40% of the participants prefer the instructions format 2 (Colored pictures without text instructions) 56% prefer the instructions format 4 (Colored pictures with text instructions) and only 4% prefer the instructions format 1(White & black pictures without text instructions) and no one of the participants prefer format 3 (White & black pictures with text instructions) as shown in Figure 8.
Graph: Figure 8. Participants' preferences.
Conclusions and future work
The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of various assembly instruction formats on metrics for performance. The study focuses on the impact of color and text in assembly instructions on manual assembly tasks. Various instruction modes were created and implemented to evaluate assembly performance metrics. Based on the results the following conclusions are drawn:
Limitations
This study gives interesting insights into how assembly instruction formats affect manual assembly performance, but its limitations must be acknowledged to guide future research and contextualize the findings:
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Raytheon Chair for Systems Engineering for funding.
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Footnotes
Before the study, ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Board at KSU (ethical code # E-24-8622).
Thank you for your correspondence regarding the consent form for the participant experiments. We would like to inform you that all participants in our study were Arabic speakers. Therefore, the consent form provided to them was in Arabic. Unfortunately, we do not have an English version of the consent form available. However, if you require the consent form in Arabic, we would be more than happy to send it to you.
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study received funding from the Raytheon Chair for Systems Engineering. The authors are grateful to the Raytheon Chair for Systems Engineering for funding.
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
By Wadea Ameen; Atef M Ghaleb; Rafeek Mushtaha; Abdulaziz Aburahma and Abdulrahman Al-Ahmari
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